Main stages in the development of Chinese philosophy

The philosophy of China in its development has passed three main stages:

A turning point in development Ancient China became the first millennium BC. Against the background of the experience accumulated by this time by society, mythology, which previously claimed to explain the laws of the universe, revealed its limitations. The emerging philosophy was called upon to find a way out of the current impasse. The most influential national philosophies in China were Taoism, Confucianism And legalism.

Taoism- the oldest philosophical doctrine of China, which tries to explain the foundations of the construction and existence of the surrounding world and find the path that man, nature and space should follow. The founder of Taoism is considered Li Er (604 - 6th centuries BC), better known as Lao Tzu ("Old Teacher" ) . He is considered the author of the book "Daodejing"(“The Teaching of Tao and Te”, or “The Book of the Path and Strength”).

The main concepts of Taoism are Tao And Dae.

Tao has two meanings:

· the path that man and nature must follow in their development, the universal law of the existence of the world;

· the origin from which the whole world originated, an energetically capacious void.

Tao is the natural course of things, the fate of everything in the world. However, this fate is understood specifically - not as rigid predetermination, but as eternal movement and change.

Te is the energy emanating from above, thanks to which the original principle of Tao was transformed into the surrounding world.

In Chinese philosophy, everything that exists is divided into two opposite principles - male and female. This applies to both living nature (the difference between all people into men and women, a similar sexual division among animals), and inanimate nature(for example, Chinese philosophy refers to the active masculine yang principle as the Sun, sky, day, dryness, and to the passive feminine principle yin - the Moon, Earth, plains, night, moisture).

For Taoism, fate is the transition of everything into its opposite, the alternation of dark and light stripes, yin and yang. The graphic symbol of yin-yang is a circle divided into two equal parts, interpenetrating each other. Taken separately from each other, these principles are flawed and incomplete, but, merging together, they form a harmonious unity. Without darkness there is no light, without light there is no darkness; Both a man and a woman are called a person. The interaction of two principles gives rise to movement and development.

Basic ideas of Taoism:

· everything in the world is interconnected and develops according to Tao - the natural path of all things. Thanks to the alternation of yin and yang, everything is in constant change;

· the world order, the laws of nature, the course of history are unshakable and do not depend on the will of man, therefore human intervention in the natural course of things is doomed to failure. You cannot try to control the highest laws of nature (principle "wu-wei");

· the person of the emperor is sacred, only he has spiritual contact with the gods and higher powers;

· the goal of man is a harmonious fusion with nature, harmony with the surrounding world, bringing satisfaction and peace; the path to happiness and knowledge of the truth is liberation from desires and passions;

· the development of society and civilization leads a person to replace the natural with the artificial, to disharmony with the world. The consequence of breaking ties with nature is chaos, riots and wars. Need to go back to the origins become closer to the earth and nature.

Confucianism founded Kung Fu Tzu (551-479 BC), considered one of the greatest sages of antiquity and undoubtedly the most famous and influential Chinese philosopher. In the European tradition, his name sounds like Confucius. The students of Kung Fu Tzu, having written down the thoughts, sayings and memories of the philosopher, compiled a book "Lun-yu"(“Conversations and Judgments”). This work outlines the following main ideas:

· a person is not born evil, but throughout his life he becomes bitter. His bad upbringing spoils him. Therefore, in order for evil not to penetrate the soul, it is necessary proper upbringing;

· antiquity is the ideal era of noble people. Therefore, it would be correct to be educated in the spirit ancient traditions;

· traditions are embodied in rituals and norms of politeness. If a person strictly follows all the rules of etiquette (“li”), then there will be no room for conflicts and evil in his behavior.

· A person must learn from the lessons of the past and not forget his roots. Therefore, good manners is associated with veneration of ancestors; The living embodiment of ancient traditions are parents and elders.

· Representatives of Confucianism advocate soft management of society. As an example of such management, the power of the father over his sons is given, and as the main condition - the attitude of subordinates to their bosses as sons to their father, and the boss to his subordinates as a father to his sons.

· according to Kung Fu Tzu, it is important “don’t do to others what you don’t wish for yourself”. Reciprocity and love for others are necessary in behavior - "zhen";

· Fulfillment of all the requirements set out above leads a person along the path of improvement. The goal of this path is to transform a person into the center of all virtues - noble husband.

The main issues addressed by Confucianism:

How to behave in society? The teachings of Confucius provide the following answers: to live in society and for society; give in to each other; obey your elders in age and rank; obey the emperor; restrain yourself, observe moderation in everything, avoid extremes; be humane.

How to manage people? Confucius pays great attention to the issues of what a superior (manager) and a subordinate should be.

The leader must have the following qualities: obey the emperor and follow Confucian principles; govern by virtue (“badao”); have the necessary knowledge; serve the country faithfully, be a patriot; have great ambitions, set high goals; to be noble; do only good to the state and others; prefer persuasion and personal example to coercion; take care of the personal well-being of subordinates and the country as a whole.

In its turn, the subordinate must: be loyal to the leader; show diligence in work; Constantly learn and improve yourself.

The teachings of Confucius played a major role in unifying Chinese society. Until the mid-twentieth century, it was the official ideology of China.

Legalism (school of lawyers, or Fajia) was also an important social teaching of ancient China . Its founders were Shan Yang (390 - 338 BC) and Han Fei (288 - 233 BC). During the era of Emperor Qin-Shi-Hua (3rd century BC), legalism became the official ideology.

The main question of Legalism (as well as Confucianism): how to govern society? Legalists advocate governing society through state violence, based on laws. Thus, legalism is the philosophy of strong state power.

Basic principles of legalism:

· a person has an inherently evil nature, and the driving force of his actions is personal interests;

As a rule, the interests of individual individuals ( social groups) are mutually opposite; in order to avoid arbitrariness and general hostility, state intervention in social relations is necessary;

· the main incentive for lawful behavior of most people is fear of punishment; the state (represented by the army and officials) must encourage law-abiding citizens and severely punish the guilty;

· the main distinction between lawful and unlawful behavior and the application of punishment should be laws; the laws should be the same for everyone, and punishment should be applied to both commoners and high officials (regardless of rank) if they violated the laws;

· the state apparatus should be formed from professionals (that is, bureaucratic positions should be given to candidates who have the necessary knowledge and business qualities, and not be inherited);

· the state is the main regulatory mechanism of society and, therefore, has the right to intervene in social relations, the economy, personal life citizens.

The ideas of humanity (Confucianism) and naturalness (Taoism), developed in detail in Chinese philosophy, have become a significant and important contribution to world philosophical thought. For example, Confucianism is in demand in the philosophy of education, and the ideas of Taoism are popular in environmental philosophy in recent decades. The ideas of legalism also have many supporters, including in modern Russia.

BRIEF SUMMARY ON THE TOPIC:

The basis of ancient Indian philosophy is the ancient sacred texts - the Vedas. In the interpretation of the Vedas, life is a series of reincarnations filled with suffering. The goal of most philosophical schools is to find a way to get rid of suffering. The leading school of Indian philosophy is Buddhism, offering practical instructions for achieving nirvana- a blissful state of detachment from life suffering.

Chinese philosophy is entirely subordinated to spiritual and moral issues, being interested primarily in human behavior and his inner world. Target Taoism- a harmonious fusion of man with nature, harmony with the surrounding world, bringing satisfaction and peace. The purpose of philosophy Confucianism a - the formation of a “noble husband” - educated, well-mannered, caring about others, polite and knowledgeable of traditions. Target legalism- creation of a strong centralized legal state.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS FOR SELF-CONTROL:

1. List the main philosophical schools of Ancient India. Give brief description each of these schools.

2. Indicate the main provisions of the philosophy of Buddhism.

3. What are the main tenets of Taoism? Do you agree with them? Justify your opinion.

4. Name the main ideas of Kung Fu Tzu. Highlight the most important ones.

5. Are the philosophical ideas of legalism relevant for modern Russia?

Topic 1.3. Philosophy of Antiquity

Summary: From myth to Logos. Reasons for the emergence of ancient Greek philosophy. Stages and periods of development of ancient philosophy. The period of formation of ancient philosophy: the Milesian school, Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Eleatics, Atomists (Democritus, Leucippus). The classical period of the development of ancient philosophy: the Sophists, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle. Early Hellenism: Cyrenaics, Cynics, skeptics, philosophy of Epicurus, Stoics. Late Hellenism (Roman period). The fate of ancient philosophy.

From myth to Logos. Reasons for the emergence of ancient Greek philosophy

Ancient philosophy is the philosophy of the ancient Greeks and their successors, the ancient Romans. This is a special historical type of philosophizing, generated by the conditions of a slave society. Just as in China and India, Greek philosophy is born in the depths of the mythological worldview. Ancient concepts gradually acquire the character of philosophical categories:

· Physis- nature, nature;

· Arche- origin, first cause;

· Space- Universe, order;

· Logos- word, doctrine, law, world Reason.

The basic question for mythology is: “Who created the world?” Philosophy seeks an answer to a different question: “Where did the world come from?” Rejecting legends and fantasy, philosophers are convinced of man's ability to independently understand the causes and beginnings of things - Arche. In Greek philosophy, Cosmos is the opposite of primitive disorder - Chaos. All ancient philosophy cosmocentric- it presents the world as orderly and therefore accessible to scientific study. Accidents and arbitrariness are an illusion: everything contains its own logic, everything is subordinated to the Logos - unchangeable and universal laws, which philosophy is called upon to cognize.

The emergence of philosophy in Greece was also caused by a number of external (social and cultural) reasons, including: the decline of mythology, unable to describe the diversity of the world in the light of the new experience of society; the expansion of trade and shipping, thanks to which the Greeks became acquainted with other variants of culture, social order, and the achievements of Eastern thought; economic growth, which contributed to the emergence of a large amount of free time, which was also used for philosophical reflection; democratic social structure, which contributed to free discussion, development of argumentation, evidence.

Stages and periods of development of ancient philosophy

Ancient philosophy went through four main stages in its development:

The period of formation of ancient philosophy

The first, pre-Socratic philosophical schools of Ancient Greece arose in the 7th - 5th centuries. BC e. in ancient Greek city-states (cities). Answers were sought by explaining natural phenomena, which is why this philosophy was later called natural philosophy(from Latin natura - “nature”).

To the most famous early philosophical schools Ancient Greece includes:

1. Miletus School (school of “physicists”) existed in Ancient Greece in the 6th century. BC e. and received its name from the name of a large policy in Asia Minor, Miletus.

Philosophers of the Milesian school:

§ studied not only philosophy, but also other sciences; tried to explain the laws of nature (for which they received their second name - school of "physicists");

§ acted from materialistic positions; were looking for the origin of the surrounding world.

Thales(approximately 640 - 560 BC): considered the origin of all things water.

Anaximander(610 - 540 BC), student of Thales: considered the origin of all things "apeiron"- the primary substance from which everything arose, everything consists and into which everything will turn.

Anaximenes(546 - 526 BC) - student of Anaximander: considered the root cause of everything air.

2. Pythagoreans- supporters and followers of Anaximander's student Pythagoras (c.570 - c.500 BC), ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician: number was considered the root cause of everything (all surrounding reality can be reduced to number and measured using number).

3. Heraclitus of Ephesus(544/540/535 - 483/480/475 BC):

considered the origin of everything that exists fire;

· brought out the law of unity and struggle of opposites(the most important discovery of Heraclitus);

· believed that the whole world is in constant movement And change(“You cannot step into the same river twice”). Founder of the European dialectics.

4. Eleatics- representatives of the philosophical school that existed in the VI-V centuries. BC e. in the ancient Greek polis of Elea on the territory of modern Italy.

The most famous philosophers of this school were Parmenides, Zeno of Elea . The Eleatics considered everything that existed to be a material expression of ideas (they were the harbingers of idealism).

Parmenides(c. 540-470 BC) - the main representative of the Eleatic school. For the first time he put forward the philosophical category “being”. In contrast to Heraclitus, he argued that no movement, it is simply an illusion generated by our senses.

6. Atomists(Democritus, Leucippus ) microscopic particles were considered the “building material”, the “first brick” of all things - "atoms".

Democritus from Abdera (460 - about 370 BC) is recognized the founder of the materialist movement in philosophy (“line of Democritus”). He believed that the entire material world consists of atoms and the void between them; atoms are in perpetual motion.

A prominent successor of atomism was Epicurus (341 -270 BC).

The classical period of development of ancient philosophy

Sophists- a philosophical school in Ancient Greece that existed in the 5th - first half of the 4th centuries. BC e. The sophists were not so much theorists as teachers who taught philosophy, oratory and other types of knowledge (translated from Greek “sophists” - sages, teachers of wisdom). Eminent sophist Protagoras (5th century BC) stated: “Man is the measure of all things that exist, that they exist, and non-existent, that they do not exist.”

These philosophers proved their rightness with the help of sophisms- logical techniques, tricks, thanks to which a conclusion that was correct at first glance ultimately turned out to be false and the interlocutor became confused in his own thoughts. The philosophical views of this school were based on the idea of ​​the absence absolute truths and objective values. Hence the conclusion: good is what gives a person pleasure, and evil is what causes suffering. With this approach, the problems of searching for the fundamental principle of the world receded into the background and the main attention was paid to man, especially his psychology. The works of the Sophists became a prerequisite for the development of Socratic ethics, where the main question is the question of how a person should live.

Socrates(469 - 399 BC) - an outstanding polemicist, sage, philosopher-teacher. He made a radical revolution in philosophy, arguing that the philosophy of man should become the key to the philosophy of nature, and not vice versa. The philosopher was a supporter ethical realism , Whereby any knowledge is good, and any evil is committed from ignorance.

Historical significance of Socrates' activities is that he:

Contributed to the dissemination of knowledge and education of citizens;

Opened the method maieutics, widely used in modern education. The essence of maieutics is not to teach the truth, but to, thanks to logical techniques and leading questions, lead the interlocutor to independently find the truth;

He educated many students who continued his work (for example, Plato), and stood at the origins of a number of so-called “Socratic schools.” "Socratic schools" - philosophical doctrines formed under the influence of the ideas of Socrates and developed by his students. The “Socratic schools” include: Plato Academy; school of cynics; Cyrene school; Megara school; Elido-Eretrian school .

Plato(427 - 347 BC) - the greatest philosopher of Ancient Greece, student of Socrates, founder of his own philosophical school - the Academy, founder of the idealistic trend in philosophy.

1. Plato - founder of idealism. Our world, according to Plato, is not true - it is only a distorted shadow, a reflection of the true world in the likeness of a crooked mirror. The true world, which Plato calls world of ideas, inaccessible to the senses.

2. Plato's concept of love. Every person has a body and a soul. The soul is the main part of a person, thanks to it he learns ideas, this is what virtue. The soul consists of three parts. The highest part is the rational part, which contains true knowledge. The other two parts - passionate and lustful - are lower. The soul realizes itself in virtues moderation, courage and finally wisdom. It is easiest to be moderate, more difficult to be courageous, and even more difficult to become wise. Not only knowledge, but also love leads to good.

The essence of love is movement towards the good, the beautiful, and happiness. This movement has its own stages: love for the body, love for the soul, love for the good and the beautiful. Many people believe that platonic love - This is love devoid of sensual attractions. In reality, Plato praised love as a motivating force for spiritual improvement. He opposed the reduction of love to sexual simplicity, but did not deny sensual love itself.

Plato gave a special role state problem(unlike Thales, Heraclitus and others, who searched for the beginning of the world and explained phenomena surrounding nature, but not society). The main idea of ​​public improvement is the idea justice. Those who have achieved moderation must be peasants, artisans, traders (merchants). Those who achieve courage are destined to become guardians (warriors). And only those who have achieved wisdom in their spiritual development can rightfully be statesmen. The state should be ruled by philosophers! Platon wanted to build an ideal state. Life has shown that these ideas turned out to be largely naive. But even today the politicians of all developed countries often put the idea of ​​justice first. And this is Plato's idea!

In the suburbs of Athens was created Academy- religious and philosophical school founded by Plato in 387 BC. and existed for more than 900 years (until 529 AD).

Aristotle(384-322 BC) - student of Plato, teacher of Alexander the Great.

1. The doctrine of matter and form. Aristotle criticizes Plato's doctrine of "pure ideas". He highlights in every single thing matter (substrate) And form. In a bronze statue, the matter is the bronze and the form is the outline of the statue. Man is more complex: his matter is bones and meat, and his form is soul. The philosopher highlights three levels of the soul: plant, animal and intelligent.

Vegetable soul responsible for functions nutrition, growth and reproduction. Animal soul performs plant functions and, in addition, complements the body with functions sensations and desires. But only rational (human) soul, covering all the above functions, it is also in charge of the functions reasoning and thinking. This is what sets a person apart from the entire world around him.

What is more important - matter or form? It is only through the form that the statue becomes a statue, and does not remain a bronze blank. F orma is the main cause of existence. And there are four reasons for existence:

Ü formal - the essence of a thing;

Ü material - the substrate of a thing;

Ü active - that which sets in motion and causes changes;

Ü target - in the name of what the action is performed.

So, according to Aristotle, single being is the unity of matter and form. Matter is opportunity of being, and form is the realization of this possibility, Act. You can make a ball, a statue out of copper, i.e. like matter copper is the possibility of a ball and a statue. When applied to an individual object, the essence is form. The form is expressed concept. The concept is valid even without matter. Thus, the concept of a ball is valid even when a ball has not yet been made from copper. The concept belongs to the human mind. It turns out that form is the essence of both a separate individual object and the concept of this object.

2. Logic. Aristotle is the founder of logic. He was the first to present logic as an independent discipline, formulate its laws, and give the concept deductive method- from particular to general, justified the system syllogisms- conclusion from two or more premises of the conclusion).

3. Anthropology. Aristotle takes a materialistic approach to the problem of man. Man is a highly organized animal; differs from other animals in the presence of thinking and intelligence; has an innate tendency to live in a group. "Man is a social animal."

4. Ethics. The last goal and the last good is happiness. Happiness for Aristotle, this is not a life wasted on pleasures, pleasures and entertainment, it is not honor, success or wealth, but the coincidence of a person’s virtue with the external situation.

Aristotle - author rules of the “golden mean”. Virtues can and should be learned. They always act as a middle ground, a compromise of a prudent person: “nothing too much...”. Generosity is the mean between vanity and cowardice, courage is the mean between reckless courage and cowardice, generosity is the mean between extravagance and stinginess, etc.

At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. In China, one of the oldest civilizations in the world, a natural philosophical doctrine about the “will of Heaven” is emerging. It was argued that everything in the world depends on the predestination of heaven. Sovereign (Wang) spoke to his subjects as the “Son of Heaven,” and the country itself was called “The Celestial Empire.” The mythological worldview of Ancient China assumed that in ancient times the world was a formless chaos. Then two spirits appeared in him - Yin(feminine) and Ian(masculine) who formed the earth and sky. Yang, the light principle, expressed the properties of the sky, south, sun, day, life, strength. Yin represented the north, darkness, death, earth, moon, weakness, even numbers. Yin and Yang oppose each other, but at the same time they depend on each other, interpenetrate each other, being the beginning of being, which is expressed in the famous emblem.

In the VI century. BC. Philosophy is blossoming in China, thinkers called “perfectly wise” are beginning to play a major role in society. The main themes in Chinese philosophy were issues of governing the country, relations between various groups in society, philosophy was used in developing recommendations for organizing public life. The struggle between various philosophical, political and ethical trends, which are called "one hundred schools" although in reality there were significantly fewer main currents.

Let's look at some of the philosophical schools that had the greatest influence on the culture and political life of China.

Taoism- management based on non-action. Founder of Taoism - Lao Tzu(“old thinker” or “old child”). According to legend, his mother carried him in her womb for 81 years, and he was born from her thigh in 604 BC. The newborn had gray hair, which made him look like an old man. For most of his life he served as custodian of the imperial archives and librarian. In old age he left the country for the west. When he reached the border post, its commander asked Lao Tzu to tell him about his teachings. The sage fulfilled the request by writing the text "Tao Te Jip"(“The Book of the Way of Life”), after which he left China forever.

The central concept of this doctrine is "dao"- the universal pattern of the world, the fundamental principle of everything that exists, the universal Law and the Absolute, in accordance with which the development of the Universe occurs. Taoism repeatedly emphasizes the difficulty of comprehending the Tao. Tao is incorporeal and formless, inexhaustible in action. Inexpressible in words, Tao is understood as non-existence that gives rise to being.

Besides Tao, there is "de". This is a kind of universal force, a principle with the help of which Tao as the way of things can take place. This is also the method by which one can conform to the Tao. Da is a principle, a way of being. If Tao is the root cause, then it is concretized and materialized through De.

The reason for all adversity and disaster is that the operation of Tao is disrupted in society; Instead of the natural Tao, people have created the human Tao, which serves the interests of the rich and harms the poor. We must return to the natural Tao, to the patriarchal community, where there were no rich and poor, no exploitation and oppression.

Lao Tzu's main idea is to create such a system government controlled, which is built on inaction (principle "wu-wei"»), the best way realization of Tao. The “perfectly wise” ruler allows everything to take its natural course. He does not interfere with anything, does not interfere with the Tao. Therefore, “the best ruler is the one about whom they only know that he exists.” The most reasonable behavior is the desire for calm and moderation.

Taoism gradually degenerated into a religious system that presupposed the presence of superstition and magic, which had little in common with philosophical Taoism. And Lao Tzu himself was deified.

Confucianism - Ritual-based management. Confucius, or Kunzi, i.e. “teacher from the Kun clan” (551-479 BC) was born into the family of the third wife of a noble but impoverished military leader in the kingdom of Lu. When the future philosopher was only one and a half years old, his father died, and his mother, oppressed by her older wives, was forced to return to her homeland in Qufu, where the family lived in poverty. Thanks to hard work and diligent study, Confucius was appointed manager of the barns and only at the age of 50 was he able to join government activities, holding the position of head of the court order. Having left service as a result of intrigues, he traveled for 13 years to other Chinese states, trying to convey his ideas to the rulers who were engaged in internecine strife and plunged the people into the abyss of disasters and suffering. After returning home, he continued to teach and collected and edited the literary heritage of the past, including the first weather chronicle in Chinese history, as well as the Book of Changes. Disciples of Confucius wrote down his thoughts and teachings - essay "Lun Yu"(“Conversations and Judgments”).

Unlike Lao Tzu, Confucius was not interested in the irrational: “I am not talking about the supernatural, about violence, about unrest and about spirits.”

The main idea of ​​Confucius is “ correction of names"- under the influence of time, people and their relationships change, but at the same time old words are used, although the content of these names has already changed. Thus, a person is called a ruler, although he is no longer the ruler he was in the past; they call a person a son, although he no longer fully fulfills his filial duties. The discrepancy between the old and new contents of names must be eliminated, the names must be “correct,” which in fact meant a call for a return to the past. The ideal of Confucianism is the creation of a harmonious society according to the ancient model, in which every individual has his own function.

Confucius draws an image of " noble husband"(jun-tzu), contrasting him with the commoner. A noble man is afraid of three things: he is afraid of the command of heaven, great people and the words of the completely wise.

Confucius named five virtues of a “noble husband”, by cultivating which a person achieves harmony with the external and internal world. They are reflected in the form of five sacred hieroglyphs.

• Hieroglyph " Ren"(tree) - humanity, following it means being guided by love, mercy, humanity and compassion for people.
• Hieroglyph "AND"(metal) - justice, following it means the principle of reciprocity, which balances humanity. So, you need to respect your parents in gratitude for the fact that they raised you.
• Hieroglyph " Zhi"(water) - common sense, following it means balancing justice, preventing stubbornness and stupidity.
• Hieroglyph "Lee"(fire) is a ritual, following it means observing the necessary ceremonies, rituals, dignity and self-respect - this allows people to better feel life itself, its spirit.
• Hieroglyph "Xin"(earth or heart) - sincerity, following it means balancing the ritual, preventing hypocrisy - the main Confucian virtue, without which all the others will have no power.

« Short person"(xiao-zhen) does not know the command of heaven and is not afraid of it, he despises tall people who occupy a high position and ignores the words of a wise man.

Management based on the rules of behavior is the central point of the ethical and political ideas of Confucius. The basis of order in the country is "whether"

(ritual, ceremony, respect). Lee includes rules of conduct, moral imperatives, respect, and strict adherence to the division of social roles. The ritual is comprehensive. Plays an important role devotion(zhong) - the idea of ​​submission and veneration of the ruler, parents, older brothers by the younger ones. The importance of honoring parents is especially emphasized.

In Confucianism, much attention is paid to issues of political life and government. The relationship between the ruler and the people is likened to the relationship between a rider and a horse. The “horseman” is a ruler endowed with great wisdom, and the “horse” is a people incapable of independent actions. The ruler ruled the people with the help of “bridles” and “reins” - officials and laws. For the existence of a normal state and to maintain order in the state, a certain amount of wealth is first of all necessary. Confucius said that the people must first be “made rich” and then “educated.”

Confucius pointed out the need to eliminate four evils: cruelty, rudeness, robbery and greed. Actions opposite to these four types of evil are to educate the people, warn them, religiously observe reasonable orders, and be generous.

Confucius spoke about the power and importance of the moral example of superiors for inferiors. “If the personal behavior of those (who are at the top) is correct, things go ahead, although they do not give orders.”

The views of Confucius had a strong influence on the subsequent spiritual culture and political practice of China.

Mohism - virtue-based governance. The founder of the school, Mo Tzu, or Mo Di (c. 475-395 BC), who came from a family of small owners, was a fellow countryman of Confucius. Having studied Confucianism, Mo Tzu became its opponent on a number of positions. In his opinion, people may not follow the wishes of heaven; there is no fatal predestination, no fate in people’s lives.

Mo Tzu speaks of seven troubles in the state:

• 1) the wastefulness of the ruler, sometimes it reaches the point that there are no funds for the fortress wall, and at the same time palaces are built;
• 2) lack of mutual assistance between individual holdings;
• 3) the impoverishment of common people due to the wastefulness of dignitaries;
• 4) unrighteousness of the ruler’s servants;
• 5) the ruler’s self-confidence, lack of interest in the opinions of those close to him;
• 6) lack of loyalty and trust between the ruler and servants;
• 7) lack of zeal on the part of servants and dignitaries, fear of punishment.

At the heart of all disasters is “mutual disunity,” in which different interests give rise to “mutual hatred.” Mo Tzu proposed a program for relationships between people that would contribute to the improvement of society. The central idea of ​​his teaching is the call to achieve the establishment of relations between all people on the principles of “universal love and mutual benefit.” This thesis of the Mohists, as opposed to the Confucian principles of dividing society into “common people” and “noble men”, “rulers” and “governed”, was an attempt at a unique ethical justification for the idea of ​​equality of people and reflected the desire to attract broad sections of the population to participate in the political life of the state .

Mo Tzu believed that in order to govern the state it was necessary to “promote the wise” regardless of their social status. “Officials do not have permanent nobility; the people should not always be in a low position.” He believed that unrest in society arises from the absence of “universal love.”

Fajia (school of legalists)- law-based management, was created Han Feiem(c. 280-233 BC). The legalists in principle rejected governance based on ritual and tradition. Speaking against the Confucians, they ridiculed their reasoning about humanity, duty, justice, and brotherly love, calling them a “word game” and comparing them to the children’s game of “preparing elegant dishes from sand.” In contrast to governance based on ritual, the Virtue Legists promoted governance based on law.

In the book Shan Yana“Shang Jun Shu” (“Book of the Ruler of the Shang Region” - treatise of the 4th-3rd centuries) the need to govern on the basis of the law is justified by the fact that man is naturally evil. The bestial nature inherent in a person cannot be changed by education, but its manifestations can be prevented by strict laws, a system of punishments and rewards. A person must be approached as a vicious creature. “Where (people are treated) as virtuous, misdeeds are hidden; where (people are treated) as vicious, crimes are severely punished... If you manage people as virtuous, then unrest is inevitable and the country will perish; if you manage people as vicious, then an exemplary order is always established and the country achieves power.”

Peace and order in the country can only be based on laws. Laws must be strict. Severe punishments are necessary to make people fear the law. Laws must be uniform and binding for everyone.

When selecting people for service, it is necessary to evaluate not their appearance, clothing or speech, but to check them while performing their duties. Legislation, a well-thought-out system of rewards and punishments, a system of mutual responsibility and general surveillance were supposed to ensure the unity of the state and the strength of the ruler’s power. This concept played a big role in the creation of a single centralized state.

The philosophy of Ancient China did not have any serious impact on the development of philosophy in Europe. However, it has had a great impact on China's neighboring countries. Thus, Confucianism became one of the main ideological teachings in Japan, along with Shinto and Buddhism.

• The “Book of Changes” (“I Ching”) is intended for fortune-telling, the purpose of which is to understand whether a person’s activity runs counter to the course of world events, or whether it is harmoniously included in the world, i.e. whether she brings him misfortune or happiness. The book contains 64 symbols (hexagrams), each of which expresses one or another life situation in time from the point of view of its gradual development. Each hexagram is accompanied by a set of forisms, which should give advice to the fortuneteller.
• Confucius. Lun Yu. VII. 21/22.

Introduction

1. Thinkers of Ancient China

Three greatest thinker Ancient China

2.1Lao Tzu

2 Confucius

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

China - country ancient history, culture, philosophy.

Ancient China arose on the basis of Neolithic cultures that developed in the 5-3 millennia BC. in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. The Yellow River basin became the main formation area ancient civilization China, which developed for a long time in conditions of relative isolation. Only from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The process of expanding the territory begins in a southern direction, first to the Yangtze basin area, and then further to the south.

At the end of our era, the state of Ancient China extended far beyond the Yellow River basin, although the northern border of the ethnic territory of the ancient Chinese remained almost unchanged.

Ancient Chinese class society and statehood formed somewhat later than the ancient civilizations of Ancient Western Asia, but nevertheless, after their emergence, they began to develop at a fairly rapid pace and high forms of economic, political and cultural life were created in Ancient China, which led to the formation of the original socio-political and cultural system.

Chinese philosophy is part of Eastern philosophy. Its influence on the cultures of China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and Taiwan is equivalent to the influence of ancient Greek philosophy on Europe. Thus, the relevance of the topic lies in the fact that the thinkers of Ancient China left their mark on history, whose experience is currently being used.

The purpose of this work: to study the greatest thinkers of Ancient China and characterize the main provisions of their teachings.

. Thinkers of Ancient China

China's religions have never existed in the form of a rigidly centralized "church." The traditional religion of ancient China was a mixture of local beliefs and ceremonies, united into a single whole by the universal theoretical constructs of pundits.

However, the most popular among both the educated and the peasantry were the three great schools of thought, often called the three religions of China: Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. All these teachings are more philosophical than religious, in contrast to ancient Indian philosophy, which has always been closely connected with the religious tradition.

Ancient Chinese philosophy arose approximately in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The ideas that formed the basis of philosophy were formed in monuments of the ancient Chinese literary tradition such as “Shu Jing” (“Book of Documentary Writings”), “Shi Jing” (“Book of Poems”), “I Ching” (“Book of Changes”).

Ancient Chinese philosophy is characterized by features that are not characteristic of other Eastern philosophical traditions. It must be said that the ancient Chinese had no idea about a transcendental God, about the creation of the world by God out of nothing, and had no idea about the dualism of the ideal and material principles of the world. In Ancient China, the traditional ideas for the West, India, and the Middle East did not develop about the soul as a kind of immaterial substance that separates from the body after death. Although ideas about the spirits of ancestors existed.

The Chinese worldview is based on ideas about qi. Qi is understood as a kind of vital energy that permeates absolutely everything in the world. Everything in the world is a transformation of Qi.

Qi is a kind of quasi-material substance that cannot be defined only as material or spiritual.

Matter and spirit are inseparable, they are consubstantial and interreducible, that is, spirit and matter are in a state of constant mutual transition.

At the core of existence is the Primordial Qi (Limitless, Chaos, Unity), which is polarized into two parts - yang (positive) and yin (negative). Yang and Yin are mutually transitive. Their transition constitutes the great Tao-path.

The negative potentially contains the positive and vice versa. So, Yang power reaches its limit and turns into Yin and vice versa. This position is called the Great Limit and is depicted graphically as a “Monad”.

Considering everything that exists as a unity of opposite principles, Chinese thinkers explained the endless process of movement by their dialectical interaction. Filling the Universe, generating and preserving life, these primary substances or forces determine the essence of the Five Elements: Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Soil.

Actually, these ideas underlie ancient Chinese philosophy and are supported by all Chinese thinkers, with some differences in interpretation.

Differences between Chinese philosophy and Western philosophy: integral (holic) perception instead of analytical and cyclical processes instead of their static, linear nature. The three greatest thinkers of Ancient China that we will focus on in the next chapter are:

Lao Tzu- covered with an aura of mystery;

Confucius- revered by everyone;

Mo Tzu- now little known, who, however, more than four centuries before the birth of Christ formulated the concept of universal love.

Getting to know the views of these thinkers is made easier by the fact that there are three texts directly related to their names.

2. Three Greatest Thinkers of Ancient China

.1 Lao Tzu

Lao Tzu - a nickname meaning "old teacher" - is the great sage of Ancient China who laid the foundations of Taoism - a direction of Chinese thought that has survived to this day. Approximately, the life of Lao Tzu dates back to the 7th-6th centuries BC. He is considered the author of the main treatise of Taoism, “Tao Te Ching,” which became the most popular test of ancient Chinese philosophy in the West.

Little is known about the life of this sage and the authenticity of the available information is often criticized by scientists. But it is known that he was the custodian of the imperial archive of the Zhou court - the greatest book depository of Ancient China. Therefore, Lao Tzu had free access to various ancient and contemporary texts, which allowed him to develop his own teaching.

The fame of this sage spread throughout the Celestial Empire, so when he decided to leave the kingdom of Zhou, he was stopped at an outpost and asked to leave his teachings in written form for his kingdom. Lao Tzu compiled the treatise “Tao Te Ching”, which translates as “The Canon of the Path and Grace”. The entire treatise talks about the category of Tao.

Tao means “The Way” in Chinese. According to Lao Tzu, Tao lies at the basis of the world and the world realizes Tao. Everything in the world is Tao. Tao is inexpressible, it can be comprehended, but not verbally. Lao Tzu wrote: “The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the permanent Tao.” The doctrine of Tao is closely connected with the doctrine of the mutual transition of opposites.

Lao Tzu, who lived earlier than two other great Chinese thinkers (VI-V centuries BC), is not easy to understand not only because his basic concept of “Tao” is very ambiguous: it is both “the main thing over many things” and “mother earth and sky”, “the fundamental principle of the world”, and “root”, and “path”; but also because in comprehending this concept we do not have the opportunity (as, for example, in ancient Indian and other cultures) to rely on any mythological images that would facilitate assimilation. Tao is as vague in Lao Tzu as the concept of Heaven is in all Chinese culture.

Tao is the source of all things and the basis for the functioning of existence. One of the definitions of Tao is “root.” The root is underground, it is not visible, but it exists before the plant that emerges from it. The invisible Tao, from which the whole world is produced, is also primary.

Tao is also understood as a natural law of the development of nature. The main meaning of the hieroglyph “dao” is “the road along which people walk.” Tao is the path that people follow in this life, and not just something outside it. A person who does not know the path is doomed to error, he is lost.

Tao can also be interpreted as unity with nature through subordination to the same laws. “The path of a noble man begins among men and women, but his deepest principles exist in nature.” Since this universal law exists, there is no need for any moral law - either in the natural law of karma or in the artificial law of human society.

Ecologists point to the closeness of Taoism to the emerging new understanding of nature. Lao Tzu advises adapting to natural cycles, points to self-movement in nature and the importance of balance, and perhaps the concept of “Tao” is a prototype of modern ideas about cosmic information belts.

Tao is sought within oneself. “He who knows himself can find out [the essence of things], and he who knows people is able to do things.” To know the Tao, you need to free yourself from your own passions. He who knows the Tao achieves “natural balance” because he brings all opposites into harmony and achieves self-satisfaction.

Tao desires nothing and strives for nothing. People should do the same. Everything natural happens as if by itself, without any special effort from the individual. The natural course is contrasted with the artificial activity of a person pursuing his own selfish, selfish goals. Such activity is reprehensible, therefore the main principle of Lao Tzu is not action (wu wei) - “non-interference”, “non-resistance”. Wuwei is not passivity, but rather non-resistance to nature

The roots of the philosophy of Ancient China go back to the deep past and go back more than two and a half millennia. Having been isolated from the whole world for a long time, she was able to go her own way and acquire a number of unique traits.

Features of ancient Chinese philosophy

During the period of its formation and development, the philosophy of Ancient China, like culture as a whole, was not influenced by any other spiritual traditions. This is an absolutely independent philosophy, which has fundamental differences from the Western one.

The central theme of ancient Chinese philosophy is the idea of ​​harmony with nature and the general relationship between man and the cosmos. According to Chinese philosophers, the basis of all things is the trinity of the Universe, which includes heaven, earth and man. Moreover, all energy is permeated with the energy of “Qi”, which is divided into two principles - female yin and male yang.

The prerequisite for the development of ancient Chinese philosophy was the dominant religious and mythological worldview. In ancient times, the Chinese were confident that everything in the world happens according to the will of Heaven, the main ruler of which was Shang Di, the Supreme Emperor. He had numerous spirits and gods under his command, similar to birds, animals or fish.

Rice. 1. Chinese mythology.

TO characteristic features The philosophy of Ancient China should include:

• Ancestor cult. The Chinese believed that the dead have a great influence on the destinies of living people. Moreover, their impact was positive, since the tasks of the spirits included sincere concern for the living.
• Close interaction between the masculine and feminine principles. According to ancient beliefs, at the moment of the creation of all living things, the Universe was in a state of chaos. Only after the birth of the two spirits yin and yang did the ordering of the Universe take place and divide it into two unities - heaven and earth. The masculine yang principle took the sky under its protection, and the feminine yin principle took the earth under its protection.

Rice. 2. Yin and Yang.

Philosophical schools of Ancient China

Ancient Chinese philosophy was based on several teachings that had much in common and differed only in the details of their worldview. Two directions became the most important and significant in the culture of Ancient China - Confucianism and Taoism.

TOP 4 articleswho are reading along with this

• Confucianism . One of the most important areas of philosophy of Ancient China, which has not lost its relevance to this day. The founder of this school was the great Chinese thinker Confucius, who saw the meaning of life in the manifestation of humanism, nobility, as well as in strict observance of rituals and rules of behavior. At the center of his teaching was man, his behavior, moral and mental development. Confucianism also affected government. The ancient thinker had an extremely negative attitude towards the imposition of strict laws, believing that they would still be violated. Reasonable government can only be carried out on the basis of personal example.

Confucius's childhood was very difficult. After the loss of their breadwinner, the family lived in terrible poverty, and the boy had to work hard to help his mother. However, thanks to a good education, perseverance and hard work, he managed to do successful career on public service, and then move on to teaching.

• Taoism . A popular ancient Chinese teaching, founded by the philosopher Lao Tzu. Tao is the path, the universal beginning and the universal end. According to the teachings of Lao Tzu, the universe is a source of harmony, and due to this, every living being is beautiful only in its natural state. The main idea of ​​Taoism is non-action. A person will only gain freedom and happiness when he lives in harmony with nature, away from the bustle of the world, abandoning material values ​​and living in simplicity.

Rice. 3. Lao Tzu.

• Legalism . The founder of the doctrine is considered to be the Chinese thinker Xun Tzu. According to his teachings, management of man, society and the state is possible only on the basis of total order and control. Only in this way can one suppress the dark side in a person and determine the correct existence in society.
• Mohism . The school got its name in honor of the teacher Mo-Ji. Mohism is based on the idea of ​​love, duty, mutual benefit and equality of all people. Each person must strive not only for his own good: he must in every possible way help his neighbors achieve it.

What have we learned?

While studying the topic “Philosophy of Ancient China,” we briefly learned the most important things about the philosophy of Ancient China. We found out when the origin of ancient Chinese teachings began, what prerequisites were for their development, what their main features were.

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The Book of Changes, the works of thinkers Lao Tzu and Confucius - without these three things, the philosophy of Ancient China would have resembled a building without a foundation or a tree without roots - so great is their contribution to one of the most profound philosophical systems in the world.

"I-Ching", that is, "", is one of the earliest monuments philosophy of ancient China. The title of this book has a deep meaning, which lies in the principles of variability of nature and human life as a result of a natural change in the energies of Yin and Yang in the Universe. The Sun and Moon and other celestial bodies in the process of their rotation create all the diversity of the constantly changing celestial world. Hence the title of the first work philosophy of ancient China- “Book of Changes.”

In the history of ancient Chinese philosophical thought, the “Book of Changes” occupies a special place. For centuries, almost every sage of the Celestial Empire tried to comment on and interpret the contents of the “Book of Changes.” This commentary and research activity, which lasted for centuries, laid the foundations philosophy of ancient China and became the source of its subsequent development.

Prominent representatives philosophy of ancient China, who largely determined its problematics and the issues being studied for two millennia to come, are Lao Tzu and Confucius. They lived during the 5th-6th century. BC e. Although Ancient China also remembers other famous thinkers, it is still primarily the legacy of these two people that is considered the foundation of the philosophical quest of the Celestial Empire.

Lao Tzu - "The Wise Old Man"

The ideas of Lao Tzu (real name - Li Er) are set out in the book “Tao Te Ching”, in our opinion - “The Canon of Tao and Virtue”. Lao Tzu left this work, consisting of 5 thousand hieroglyphs, to a guard on the Chinese border when he went to the West at the end of his life. The importance of the Tao Te Ching can hardly be overestimated for philosophy of ancient China.

The central concept that is discussed in the teachings of Lao Tzu is "Tao". The main meaning in Chinese- this is “path”, “road”, but it can also be translated as “root cause”, “principle”.

“Tao” for Lao Tzu means the natural path of all things, the universal law of development and change in the world. “Tao” is the immaterial spiritual basis of all phenomena and things in nature, including humans.

These are the words with which Lao Tzu begins his Canon on Tao and Virtue: “You cannot know Tao only by talking about It. And it is impossible to call by a human name that beginning of heaven and earth, which is the mother of everything that exists. Only one freed from worldly passions is able to see Him. And the one who preserves these passions can only see His creations.”

Lao Tzu then explains the origin of the concept “Tao” he uses: “There is such a thing formed before the appearance of Heaven and Earth. It is independent and unshakable, changes cyclically and is not subject to death. She is the mother of everything that exists in the Celestial Empire. I don't know her name. I’ll call it Tao.”

Lao Tzu also says: “Tao is immaterial. It is so foggy and uncertain! But in this fog and uncertainty there are images. It is so foggy and uncertain, but this fog and uncertainty hides things within itself. It is so deep and dark, but its depth and darkness conceals the smallest particles. These smallest particles are characterized by the highest reliability and reality."

Speaking about the style of government, the ancient Chinese thinker considers the best ruler to be the one about whom the people only know that this ruler exists. A little worse is the ruler whom people love and exalt. Even worse is a ruler who inspires fear in the people, and the worst are those whom people despise.

Great importance in the philosophy of Lao Tzu is given to the idea of ​​renouncing “worldly” desires and passions. Lao Tzu spoke about this in the Tao Te Ching using his own example: “All people indulge in idleness, and society is filled with chaos. I am the only one who is calm and does not expose myself to everyone. I look like a child who was not born into this idle world at all. All people are overwhelmed by worldly desires. And I alone gave up everything that was valuable to them. I’m indifferent to all this.”

Lao Tzu also cites the ideal of the perfectly wise man, emphasizing the achievement of "non-action" and modesty. “A wise person gives preference to non-action and remains at peace. Everything around him happens as if by itself. He has no attachment to anything in the world. He does not take credit for what he has done. Being the creator of something, he is not proud of what he created. And since he does not extol himself or boast, and does not strive for special respect for his person, he becomes pleasant to everyone.”

In his teaching, which had a great influence on philosophy of ancient China, Lao Tzu encourages people to strive for the Tao, talking about a certain blissful state that he himself achieved: “All Perfect people flock to the Great Tao. And you follow this Path! … I, being in inaction, wander in the boundless Tao. This is beyond words! Tao is the subtlest and most blissful."

Confucius: the immortal teacher of the Celestial Empire

Subsequent development philosophy of ancient China associated with Confucius, the most popular sage of the Celestial Empire, whose teachings today have millions of admirers both in China and abroad.

The views of Confucius are set out in the book “Conversations and Judgments” (“Lun Yu”), which was compiled and published by his students based on the systematization of his teachings and sayings. Confucius created an original ethical and political teaching that guided the emperors of China as an official doctrine throughout almost the entire subsequent history of the Celestial Empire, until the communists gained power.

The basic concepts of Confucianism that form the foundation of this teaching are “ren” (humanity, philanthropy) and “li” (respect, ceremony). The basic principle of “ren” is don’t do to others what you wouldn’t want for yourself. “Li” covers a wide range of rules that essentially regulate all spheres of social life - from family to government relations.

Moral principles, social relations and problems of government are the main themes in the philosophy of Confucius.

In relation to knowledge and awareness of the surrounding world, Confucius mainly echoes the ideas of his predecessors, in particular Lao Tzu, even inferior to him in some ways. An important component of nature for Confucius is fate. The teachings of Confucius speak about fate: “Everything is initially predetermined by fate, and here nothing can be added or subtracted. Wealth and poverty, reward and punishment, happiness and misfortune have their own root, which cannot be influenced by the power of human wisdom.”

Analyzing the possibilities of knowledge and the nature of human knowledge, Confucius says that by nature people are similar to each other. Only the highest wisdom and extreme stupidity are unshakable. People begin to differ from each other due to their upbringing and as they acquire different habits.

Regarding the levels of knowledge, Confucius offers the following gradation: “The highest knowledge is the knowledge that a person has at birth. Below is the knowledge that is acquired in the process of studying. Even lower is the knowledge gained as a result of overcoming difficulties. The most insignificant is the one who does not want to learn an instructive lesson from difficulties.”

Philosophy of Ancient China: Confucius and Lao Tzu

Sima Qian, the famous ancient Chinese historian, gives in his notes a description of how the two greatest sages of the Celestial Empire once met.

He writes that when Confucius was in Xiu, he wanted to visit Lao Tzu to listen to his opinion regarding rituals (“li”).

Note, Lao Tzu said to Confucius, that those who taught the people have already died, and their bones have long since decayed, but their glory, nevertheless, has not yet faded. If circumstances favor the sage, he rides in chariots; and if not, he will begin to carry a load on his head, holding its edges with his hands.

“I heard,” continued Lao Tzu, “that experienced merchants hide their goods as if they had nothing. Likewise, when a sage has high morality, he appearance doesn't express it. You need to give up your pride and various passions; get rid of your love for beauty, as well as your inclination towards sensuality, since they are useless to you.

That's what I'm telling you, and I won't say anything more.

When Confucius said goodbye to Lao Tzu and came to his students, he said:

It is known that birds can fly, fish can swim in water, and animals can run. I also understand that with snares you can catch those who run, with nets you can catch those who swim, and with snares you can catch those who fly. However, speaking of the dragon, I don't know how to catch it. He rushes through the clouds and rises into the sky.

Today I saw Lao Tzu. Maybe he is a dragon?..

From Sima Qian's note above, one can see the difference in the depth of thought of both philosophers. Confucius believed that the wisdom of Lao Tzu and his profound teachings was incommensurate with his own. But one way or another, both thinkers - Lao Tzu and Confucius - with their creativity laid a powerful foundation for the development philosophy of ancient China 2 thousand years ahead.