Søren Kierkegaard (1811-1855), Danish philosopher and writer, studied philosophy in Berlin at the time when the old Schelling lectured there, and then at the same time Hegel and Schopenhauer. From Schelling and Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard inherited his hostility towards the philosophy of Hegel and his school. Hegel's absolutist philosophy, according to Kierkegaard, is a typical disease of the philosophy of the modern era. Gravitating towards the absolutist, objective, this philosophical system turns a real person into a cognizing logical machine. Such a philosophy, which makes panlogism and panrationalism a cult, becomes not only useless, but also purely harmful for a person with all his life anxieties and passions: “I make completely legitimate demands on philosophy - what should a person do? How to live? The silence of philosophy is in this case a devastating argument against itself.”

The new philosophy, existential philosophy, must pose and solve the problems of the “I” and the world in such a way that human self-determination is not limited to the area of ​​the rationally known and knowable, which fits into the formulas of the science of logic. “I” as the center of philosophy is a living real person and what is most important for him in life: fear and overcoming the fear of death. In contrast to the abstractness of the Hegelian concepts of “I” and “thinking,” Kierkegaard contrasts the philosophy of concrete human existence.

The main categories of Kierkegaard's philosophy are life, fear, death, choice, being, guilt, existence. In his philosophy, for the first time, the concept of “existence” appears as a way of human existence in the world, distinguishing him from the existence of other beings due to man’s awareness of his inner being, which became fundamentally important for the existential philosophy of the twentieth century. His sense of “disturbed existence” is the direct opposite of the self-confident “I” of classical philosophy. “Where am I? Who am I? How did I come here? What is this thing called the world? What does this word mean? Who is the one who lured me into existence and is now leaving me? How did I end up in this world? Why wasn’t I consulted, why wasn’t I introduced to its customs, but simply shoved into a row with others, as if I had been bought from some seller of souls? Existence (existence), of course, is a controversy - and can I ask that my point of view be accepted for consideration? Characteristic of Kierkegaard's philosophy are feelings of homelessness, abandonment, loneliness, longing for existence, preoccupation with one's existence, fear of death, of the future and the desire to find a way out of the impasse of abandonment and the abandonment of existence into the world.

The polemical figure of Kierkegaard's existential reflections is the long tradition of European rationalism with its boundless trust in reason, and, first of all, Hegel and German transcendentalism. Existentialism in general can be viewed as a reaction to Hegelian idealism, as disappointment in the ideal of reason, science, system, in the idea of ​​social progress, in internal religiosity reconciled with the idea of ​​freedom. Hegel and the rationalist tradition were reproached with the system’s inability to explain life, free choice, anxiety and despair of the individual person and at the same time the claim to reduce everything to concept, logic, reason, the extreme abstractness of philosophical schemes.

Kierkegaard contrasts Hegel's absolute reason with the worldly aspects of human existence, which is absurd and problematic. If existence is inherently absurd, unjustifiable and so dramatic, then how can we say that “everything that is real is rational”? Kierkegaard's struggle against the scientific nature of philosophy and against the systematic form that Hegel gave it, however, was by no means anti-rationalism, a struggle against reason. Kierkegaard raises the question of bringing reason out of the depths of existence, a different way of philosophizing, the most important premise of which is the idea of ​​truth not as scientific and objective, but first of all - existential.

The main points of Kierkegaard's existential philosophy are:

1. The tragedy of the human “I” is generated due to a combination of various reasons: the alienation of the world, the finitude and fragility of the I, the inauthenticity of human existence in the mode of co-existence with other people, in general the constant presence of other people in your life, because of the “madness” of the world , which infects the human personality.

2. A person’s choice of himself – his unique and inimitable Self – is a daily process, constant for human existence. This is a responsibility to yourself and God. Choosing a way of being in accordance with the awareness of your destiny means choosing authentic being. If the choice has taken place, if a person has realized his destiny, then this is the greatest stage in his life in terms of meaning and content. The person himself feels the importance, seriousness and irrevocability of what has happened.

3. The most important place in Kierkegaard’s philosophy is occupied by the theme of God, religion, sin, death. In his work “The Sickness unto Death,” he criticizes the Christian religion for creating the image of God as the God-man. The anthropomorphic God of Christianity instills in man a deep inferiority complex and at the same time removes personal responsibility for sinfulness from man. Christianity simultaneously deprives the concept of sin of any seriousness by introducing the doctrine of universal original sin, and insists on the justification of higher moral values ​​through religion. But the path to God passes only through personal suffering, despair and overcoming passions. Kierkegaard does not recognize any religious complacency. The path to faith is not strewn with roses, it smells of pain, despair, illness leading to death.

4. On the path to God, a person goes through three successive stages of man’s knowledge of his existence, these are:

a) aesthetic, where the rationale for aestheticism as a form of existence is given. The esthetician is fixated on the present, dissatisfied with his Self, awaits his miraculous transformation into another Self, experiences despair and strives for salvation, but is shackled by weakness;

b) ethical. An ethical person, an ethicist, lives with thoughts and concerns about the future, is not fixated on the present, he is characterized by deep seriousness and moral responsibility. He also moves towards God through despair, but not as chaotically as the esthetician. However, he is overwhelmed by pride and relies only on own strength and values ​​his possible breakthrough into the future above communion with the eternal, truly absolute,

c) the religious stage therefore has the greatest advantages. A truly religious person leaves behind despair and weakness (aesthetics) and “despair-challenge” (ethics). His absolute despair (religion) is the highest stage, leading the religious person to such faith and to such God, which are truly associated with eternity.

Kierkegaard calls the analysis of these three stages “qualitative dialectics,” which is opposed to the formal dialectics of Hegel. There are, says Kierkegaard, phenomena and processes that cannot be expressed in such an objective form, which are generally difficult to formalize and calculate logically. These are the experiences of fear, despair, guilt, loneliness. They also have a subtle, deep, even sophisticated dialectic. But it is of a qualitative nature, because it captures the contradictions of human existence that are not grasped rational thinking, but by existential experience and its internal religious interpretation.

These are Soren Kierkegaard's ideas about the existential-psychological foundation of Christian religiosity. Among Kierkegaard's most significant works are Fear and Trembling (1843), The Concept of Fear (1844), and The Sickness unto Death (1849). Far from being purely religious, these works examine and discuss in detail many exclusively philosophical problems and concepts, a polemic was developed with the previous tradition, primarily with Hegel due to the general anti-Hegelian orientation of Kierkegaard’s existentialism. It should be recalled that by the end of the 19th century, Hegelianism had established itself in most universities in Germany as the official philosophy; everyone who opposed it automatically became marginal, outside the main direction, and it was almost impossible for them to survive in the academic atmosphere of university philosophy. Rejection by the university environment caused anger and despair; suffering gave rise to aggression, hostility, and a desire to oppose academic philosophy to one’s own. Kierkegaard also shared this common cup. With his tragic worldview, he did not fit into the rabid optimism of the “philosophy of mind.” Undoubtedly gifted as a philosophical genius, he did not become popular during his lifetime. The religious community of Copenhagen, where he returned to live after studying in Germany, did not accept his philosophical ideas. He died alone, in poverty, ridiculed and despised by the crowd.

Søren Aubu Kierkegaard born in 1813 in Copenhagen. He was a religious thinker and writer. From the article we will find out what trace he left in history Soren Kierkegaard.

Biography

Kierkegaard Soren came from the family of a wealthy merchant. In 1840, he completed his studies at the Faculty of Theology at the University of Copenhagen. IN next year Kierkegaard Søren received his M.A. The future writer defended his dissertation on the theories of irony among the ancient Greek romantics. Søren was in love with Regina Olsen. However, by coincidence, the engagement between them was broken off. After this event, until 1851, Kierkegaard worked a lot. During this period, the main works of the writer were created. Until 1855, Kierkegaard Soren did not create a single work, believing that he had said everything he wanted. His life was hidden from outsiders. However, at the same time, he felt other people quite subtly and understood them deeply. All the works that he created Soren Kierkegaard (books, notes, publications in magazines, etc.), are particularly psychologically accurate. In recent years, he especially sharply criticized people's desire to live comfortably and prosperously, considering themselves Christians. Kierkegaard Søren died in the same place where he was born - in Copenhagen in 1855.

The doctrine of the stages of human existence

Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard posed questions that were quite relevant for that time. The thinker's ideas formed the basis for subsequent studies of human essence. Existentialism by Søren Kierkegaard was first formulated in his work “Either-Or”. The final conclusions on the concept are given in the “Final Non-Scientific Afterword.” Søren Kierkegaard identifies 3 stages of human existence:

1. Aesthetic.
2. Ethical.
3. Religious.

According to this differentiation, the thinker divides people into:

1. Common people.
2. Aestheticians.
3. Ethics.
4. Religious.

Characteristic

Søren Kierkegaard describes the everyman as a person who lives like those around him. He tries to start a family, work, speak and dress well. The average person goes with the flow, resigns himself to circumstances, does not think that anything can be changed. Such a person simply does not know that he can choose a different life.

Esthetician

He understands that there is no need to follow everyone. The esthetician independently chooses a path, a life full of pleasures. He loves good food, wine, beautiful women. He does not have a sense of responsibility and duty, he does not think about what is bad and what is good. If there is nothing interesting in life, he considers it empty, he becomes bored. A person turned to the outside world, therefore, considers pleasure as the goal. Don Juan is considered the symbol of this stage. In his novel "gives enough detailed description to such a person. This work is part of the treatise "Either-Or". " Diary of a Seducer by Soren Kierkegaard wrote, like almost all of his works, on behalf of a fictitious author.

Ethicist

The pursuit of pleasure leads to satiety. As a result, aesthetic consciousness comes to doubts and disappointments, melancholy. Through despair and anxiety, a person can move to the ethical stage only if his actions are guided by a sense of duty and reason. At this stage, the individual does not consider life empty. An ethicist understands well where there is evil and where there is good, what is bad and what is good. Such a person believes that it is necessary to live with a woman, to be faithful to her, to love her. An ethicist strives to do only good deeds, without doing anything bad. At this stage there is constant oscillation. Aesthetic elements are here to stay. A person balances between them and ethical sentiments. Socrates is the symbol of this stage.

Explanations

Soren Kierkegaard, introducing differences between the worldview of people at the aesthetic and ethical stages, points out that in the first case, whatever the worldview, it is always, in its essence, despair. This state is due to the fact that the individual bases his own life on what may or may not exist, that is, on the unimportant. The ethicist, on the contrary, chooses as a basis the essential, that which should take place. The ethical principle contributes to the formation of the inner world, gives it stability and confidence. At this stage, the individual becomes a personality transformed into a single absolute. Søren Kierkegaard tries to exclude morality from the inner space of the human spirit. Meanwhile, the ethics of isolated reality is limited. The moral law, which is established by a person, in accordance with his own experience, in turn, may be unacceptable to others and erroneous.

Last stage

As a result of balancing, a person may come to understand the limitations of both the aesthetic and ethical paths, experiencing despair again. In this case, a breakthrough to the spiritual stage can occur discretely. At this stage, a person is led by his heart, faith, not subject to either reason or sensuality. A religious person is aware of his imperfection. He understands that he is a sinner and strives for God, believing that he will forgive him. By choosing a breakthrough to the Almighty, a person overcomes the shortcomings of ethical perception. They are connected with the fact that the driving force of the individual is the desire to achieve happiness, but there is a universal law in the world that limits his freedom. Faith in God elevates the individual above the morality that he has developed for himself. Having reached this stage, a person plunges into suffering. Believers are sufferers. The cessation of suffering indicates the completion of religious life. Søren Kierkegaard believed that people who are obsessed with optimism are in an impenetrable delusion. He believed that life is sorrow, not joy. Kierkegaard pointed out that man, like an abyss, is thrown into a dark world not of his own free will. While in it, he experiences freedom and suffering, sin. He fears God. At the same time, life, which is filled with suffering, becomes justified and meaningful due to the desire for salvation through atonement. The transition from one stage to another is carried out as a result of choice, a volitional act of a person. Care and despair lead a person through the stages of life. Crisis leads to fear. It stimulates choice, and human life is turned upside down. In this freedom is realized, which is aimed at achieving endless bliss. Faith acts as a person’s assistant in overcoming despair on the roads of life. By abandoning the mind, which causes suffering, despair, fear, the individual gains peace. Only faith guarantees true existence.

Despair

Based on the dogma of original sin, Søren Kierkegaard speaks of human life as suffering and experience. This leads the individual to despair. It, acting as a result of the sinful essence of man, is considered at the same time as the only opportunity to break through to God. According to the three stages of an individual’s existence in work “ Sickness leading to death" by Søren Kierkegaard considers:

1. Despair of the possible. For aesthetic people, it is associated with a factuality that does not correspond to expectations. In consciousness, such a person tries to replace his own Self with another who has certain advantages - strength, intelligence, beauty, etc. The despair that arises in connection with the reluctance to be oneself leads to destruction. Individual pleasures are fragmentary, they have no unity. As a result, the Self crumbles into the “sand of moments.”
2. Courageous despair. It appears as a consequence of the desire to be oneself, to achieve continuity of the Self. This desire, in turn, is the result of the moral efforts of an ethicist. For such a person, the “I” no longer acts as a complex of random pleasures. It is the result of the free creation of one's own personality. But the tragic arrogance of an individual who imagines that his human strength will be quite sufficient to realize the “I” causes despair. The ethicist becomes convinced of his inability to overcome his own finitude and break through to God.
3. Absolute despair. It arises in a religious person as a result of understanding the abandonment of the world around him and his loneliness before the Almighty.

The thinker believed that true faith is not the result of assimilation of religious traditions, but a consequence of an absolutely responsible and free choice in conditions of complete loneliness.

Soren Kierkegaard: "Fear and Trembling"

In 1843, the writer published this treatise. He took the pseudonym Johannes de Silenzio. As pointed out Soren Kierkegaard, fear appears in a person as a being who is free in ontological terms, but at the same time bearing the trace of original sin and therefore, finite, mortal. The focus is on the question of faith and its possibilities within the framework of reality. The thinker took as a basis the Old Testament story about Abraham and his son Isaac. In 1844 another treatise was published " The concept of fear." Soren Kierkegaard suggests that this feeling arises as a consequence of the awareness of the impossibility of overcoming one’s own demise and the risk of misusing one’s own freedom.

Rationalism

In contrast to the development of German classical idealism, Søren Kierkegaard pointed out the primacy of the individual attitude to human existence and the actions and deeds that flow from it. At the same time, rational knowledge was secondary for the thinker. In his reasoning, Søren Kierkegaard is close, on the one hand, to Kant. The latter asserted the primacy of practical (pure) reason in connection with speculative reason. On the other hand, Kierkegaard’s position is fundamentally different from Kant’s idea of ​​the (self) sufficiency of ethical universal criteria in the exercise of personal free choice by a person.

Basis of concepts

Søren Kierkegaard's philosophical views were formed under the influence of German romanticism and a response to Hegel's teaching. One of the key sources of the direction of the thinker’s ideas was the awareness of the troubles of the world. The beginning of philosophy, he believed, comes not from surprise, as Aristotle and Plato said, but from despair. In turn, the latter arises due to the fact that the world is filled with evil. The study of philosophical issues in the author's writings is based on a reinterpretation of Hegelian dialectics. Søren Kierkegaard reinterprets many terms and concepts. At the same time, he denies the placement of the individual in a specific historical system of the embodiment of the objective spirit. He sees in this the subordination of man to the era, depriving him of responsibility for his behavior and independence.

Ideas

Søren Kierkegaard opposed philosophical claims not only to design social reality, but also to explain it. Reality for him is what the “I” reveals in itself. The soul is primary, and the body is secondary. Man is a synthesis of these elements, a combination of necessity and freedom, eternal and temporary. Kierkegaard was against the doctrine of truth. The latter appeared for him as a subjective category. The criterion of truth is a person’s passionate confidence in his own rightness. The subject of study of the thinker was not universal, but individual truth. Later, a similar position was defended by the Russian philosopher Shestov.

Views of other thinkers

It is worth saying that the task of existence is not presented scientific study. Therefore, Kierkegaard's ideas are recorded in the form of a flow of free thoughts on issues that interest him. He sought to draw attention to the alarming signs of existence that manifest themselves in spiritual life. The author was not inclined to overestimate the significance of his capabilities in warning about the danger looming from nihilism. The most prominent representatives of existentialism include Sartre, Jaspers, Camus, and Heidegger. The latter solves the problem of human existence in a somewhat unique way. Heidegger considers the main task of laying the foundation for understanding the world. It is represented by ontology. It is based on listening to existence, developing a reaction to it, in accordance with the signals it gives when striving to find a comfortable place in the world. For Jaspers, the problem of existence is solved through adaptation. He tries to instill in the reader a responsible and careful attitude towards the values ​​​​that have been found by European civilization. Jaspers warns against thoughtlessly shaking the established norms of the Western world. It seeks to direct human efforts toward the responsible formation of a community within which peoples will form one family. Camus and Sartre highlight the troubles of the world. They show the absurdity of everything. At the same time, the authors suggest courageously fulfilling your duty, not being afraid of losses, and not bowing to the blows of fate. They encourage you to calmly carry out your everyday affairs. But if oppression truly becomes unbearable, Camus and Sartre suggest daring to revolt.

Søren Kierkegaard solved the problems of existence in a dark and inhospitable world, based on the fact that the individual enters life unprepared. He perceives it as a place of celebration. Moving from stage to stage of his improvement, a person is able to move from aesthetic perception, in which the goal is pleasure, to ethical perception, in which reasonable service to one’s human duty comes to the fore. As a result, he approaches a religious worldview and breaks through to God.

Kierkegaard, Søren Aabye (1813-1855)- Danish philosopher, forerunner of religious and philosophical modernism and existentialism.

The main motive for K.'s philosophizing was disappointment in systematic theology and in abstract philosophical systems, since the incomprehensible truths of Christianity are considered by them in a cold, rational manner. In activity taxonomists and objective philosophers he saw blasphemy and hypocrisy.

K. considered it his mission to awaken in contemporary Christians a living, direct, subjective attitude towards religion, independent of the content of the doctrine, i.e. on its truth or falsity.

K. was the first to propose, as a weapon for the destruction of dogmatic consciousness and faith, a provocative distinction between “existence” and “being” (essence), and, accordingly, “thought” and “reality.”

Of course, existence and essence in the metaphysical plane were already distinguished by Heraclitus. But K. proposes to separate them and contrast them so that two separate and opposing worlds arise. “Existence” refers to the living, changing world of personal subjectivity, the relationship of the individual with God and with other individuals. “Being” is the objective, dead and motionless world of the collective, the Church, dogmatic knowledge about God and the world.

This strange and arbitrary division was destined to live a long life, since it different options wanders from one modernist system to another. In this, K. turned out to be the forerunner of both the philosophy of existentialism and modernist - Protestant, Catholic and "Orthodox" - theology.

K. sharply contrasts faith and knowledge. No speculation, no theory is possible in his system. No reason can be given for religion. One of two things: either you have faith, or you have knowledge about God. Therefore, in the K. system, faith is ignorance, and even, paradoxically, unbelief.

K. sharply criticized the contemporary Church for professing “dead” dogmas, for the internal inadequacy of the pastors of the high mission. K. clearly considered himself to be awake among those sleeping, since he boldly admitted that Christianity is absurd, that faith has no foundation or justification and is a “leap into nowhere.” K. boldly faced the fact that the Church supposedly cannot give an answer to the outside world’s questions about what She believes. On his unbelief, K. asserts an absurd, unfounded, subjective faith. At the same time, K., as is typical of later modernists, does not distinguish faith, as a supernatural gift, from faith in dogmas, and it is from dogmatic faith that he demagogically demands that which is inherent in faith as a gift of God.

K. believes despite his unbelief, and this is not at all an intermediate step to a more perfect faith in Christ. On the contrary, perfect faith for him is philistinism and vulgarity. K., so to speak, enjoys this stay in the abyss of unbelief, precisely “my” stay.

The historical truths of Christianity, and historical facts in general, also do not prove any truth. We can say that for K., if something is clear, then it is no longer true.

After this, we will no longer be surprised to read: The rational interpretation of theology has long exhausted itself, revealing not only its deep insufficiency, but also its fundamental fallacy, for Christianity is not a philosophical concept, not a fruit of reason, but a divinely revealed program and the path of perfect human life. And true theology is the Christian life, but not the sum of dogmas united into a single logical system(Osipov 1976, 64).

K. insisted on the tragic essence of Christianity in this sense, since it is supposedly not based on anything. In his literary activity, K. strove to ensure that indirect artistically push their fellow citizens to the internal acceptance of Christianity. Refusing to present understandable thoughts, K. was forced to implicitly lead the reader to the edge of the abyss that he himself saw and on the verge of which he admired himself with bated breath.

K. sought to awaken the consciousness of readers, which he ultimately succeeded in doing. But what does a “conscious” attitude towards Christianity mean, according to K.? This is a subjective attitude. This is where the main paradox of K. is rooted - how can this be a conscious acceptance of Christianity if every object of faith is denied? Isn't this a dream?

K. was more honest than many modernists, because he did not create his own scholasticism. But his subjectivity allows essentially everything that the thinker wants. Therefore, we observe time after time how, or create their own systems based on the unknowability of God, His Essence and His properties. This is not inconsistency, but a sign of inner “freedom”, not bound by any morality.

Apparently, K. himself did not want to be understood as if he were denying the truth as such. He denies only objective truth, external to man. Likewise, morality is a law in its essence, but an internal law, i.e. established by a person for himself. This legitimization of truth by a person for himself consists of the assimilation of truth, according to K. This concept looks very strange, since a person’s understanding of a general truth independent of him does not constitute any complex or insoluble problem.

This is another general idea of ​​modernism - the denial of external law. She is deeply unfaithful. After all, the understanding of the Truth occurs in the fear of God, and assimilation occurs through the coordination of oneself with the Divine laws, and not vice versa. K., like all modernism, declares man as the starting point, and not the truth. The person is put at the forefront, and not even the whole person, but only the intimate, emotional side of him. From here, any understanding of the truth becomes problematic, ceases to be a duty and becomes a personal feat and even a miracle. Morality is also not abolished, but the commandments lose their objective status and become a product of a person’s inner life.

Defenders of K.'s teachings say, however, that for K. the commandments remain the same as in objective religion. But this is just a trick, because, in this case, why did K. do such work destructive for religion?

Personality for K. does not “is,” but “becomes,” which introduces the theme of “freedom,” the “tragic burden” of freedom, developed later by the existentialists.

The only sign of the truth of religious beliefs for K. is not compliance with objective Truth, but the sincerity of religious feelings and the degree of their tension. Theory is abstraction, and passion is involvement, which is the essence of religion for K. Therefore, faith for him is not faith in Who or what. All that matters is: what kind of faith, how strong. The pagan who prays in spirit and truth, even though the object of his prayer is a false god, actually believes in the True God, while, on the other hand, the Christian who does not sincerely pray to the True God actually believes in an idol. This anticipates attacks against religion by “Orthodox” modernists such as Fr. I. Romanidis or. Thus, long before modern modernists, K. brought the adogmatic tendency to its logical conclusion, since sincere and extremely dressed up following the path of lies and sin is also declared a religion, and even better than Church Christianity. All these are motives that were very clearly expressed later and served as one of the justifications for ecumenism or religious indifferentism.

Major works

Om Begrebet Ironi ("On the Concept of Irony") (1841)

Enten-Eller ("Either - or") (1843)

Frygt og Baeven and Gjentagelsen ("Fear and Trembling") (1843)

Philosophiske Smuler ("Philosophical Bits") (1844)

Begrebet Angest ("The Concept of Fear") (1844)

Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift ("Final Unscientific Afterword") (1846)

Sygdommen til Døden ("Sickness unto death") (1849)

Indøvelse i Christendom ("Introduction to Christianity") (1850)

Sources

Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge

The Blackwell Guide to Continental Philosophy // ed. Robert C. Solomon and David Sherman. Blackwell Publishing, 2003

M. J. Charlesworth. Philosophy and religion from Plato to postmodernism. Oxford: Oneworld, 2002

Osipov A.I. Salvation is liberation for peace and justice in Christ. The meaning of the Church // ZhMP. 1976. No. 3

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (Danish: Søren Aabye Kierkegaard, May 5, 1813, Copenhagen - November 11, 1855, ibid.) - Danish philosopher, Protestant theologian and writer.

He graduated from the Faculty of Theology at the University of Copenhagen in 1840. He received his master's degree in 1841, having defended his dissertation “On the Concept of Irony,” dedicated to the concepts of irony among ancient Greek authors and romantics. After the engagement was broken, he worked a lot until 1851 and wrote his main works. Then he leaves writing with the feeling that he said what he had to say, right up to the “church controversy” of 1855. He led a life hidden in his being from people; At the same time, he felt other people subtly and deeply understood. Kierkegaard's works are distinguished by exceptional psychological accuracy and depth.

He criticized (especially sharply in the last years of his life and work) the emasculation of Christian life, the desire to live prosperously and comfortably and at the same time consider oneself a Christian. His exegetical works are devoted to the meaning of Christian life - “Conversations” (Thaler), as well as the work “Introduction to Christianity” (1850), and his last publications in the magazine “Moments”.

He died during a flu epidemic at the forty-third year of his life.

Books (12)

Sickness unto death

The work "Sickness unto Death" ("Sygdommen til Doden") was published by Kierkegaard in July 1849.

The thematic beginning, which gives the title to the entire book, is based on the Gospel parable of the resurrection of Lazarus. The miracle of Lazarus carries a transparent metaphorical meaning: the breathlessness and lifelessness of the dead man here symbolize the numbness of the human will, fettered by despair, when hope is lost and everything is drowning in the darkness of indifference, cynical emptiness. Salvation from this state of internal self-destruction, decay and death is possible only with the coming of Christ, who must every time anew roll away the gravestone from the crypt where every human soul languishes.

This is why Kierkegaard never tires of repeating that despair is a sin, but despair before God is already hope for healing, and the opposite of sin is not virtuous behavior, but faith.

Fear concept

The Concept of Anxiety is one of the most profound pre-Freudian works in psychology. In it, Kierkegaard distinguishes two types of horror. The work was written in 1844, and could have become much brighter than “Philosophical Crumbs”.

Fear and Trembling

To consider the source of faith and its specificity is the task of the treatise “Fear and Trembling.”

Kierkegaard makes the biblical Abraham the main character - the knight of faith - and strives to show the existence of Abraham and his actions with his heart. Considering the faith that Abraham personifies allows us to see his unique uniqueness, which brings miracle.

Philosophical crumbs, or grains of wisdom

The book “Philosophical crumbs, or grains of wisdom” belongs to the Danish thinker Søren Kierkegaard.

Conceived as a response to Hegelianism and, first of all, to the attempts at historical-critical reading of the New Testament undertaken by the Tübingen school, Kierkegaard's book became an event that went far beyond the topical discussions of the 1840s. Its central question is the historicity not of Scripture, but of the Coming itself - a truth whose eternity is realized in human history and has no other realization than a temporary one. The readiness of the religion of the God-man to offer itself as such a paradox, addressed (including to science), became the main theme of the book.

Final unscientific afterword to Philosophical crumbs

Søren Kierkegaard is an outstanding Danish thinker who had a significant influence on the development of post-classical philosophy.

A new understanding of subjectivity, a reconsideration of the question of truth, and a radical critique of modernity (from the philosophy of Hegel and profane Christianity to the everyday practices of self-forgetfulness) are the main themes of this book, which are dialectically intertwined in the focus of the “naive” question of what it means to be human.

Conversations

The book includes three exegetical works by the Danish thinker and religious writer Søren Kierkegaard.

Unlike the philosophical works that S. Kierkegaard published under various pseudonyms, these works were published by him under his own name. Poetic and deep, they are addressed to “that one and only” whom S. Kierkegaard “with joy and gratitude calls his reader” - to the reader from whom not a set of knowledge is required, but a living presence; from which it is required that he himself be real.

Diary of a Seducer

Søren Kierkegaard (1813 - 1855), a Danish philosopher, theologian and writer, is rightfully considered the forerunner and at the same time the founder of European existentialism.

The book includes the novel “The Diary of a Seducer.” The chronicle of the masterly seduction of a young girl with the Shakespearean name Cordelia by the cunning seducer Johannes, who lives an “aesthetic life,” is constructed as a series of “approaches”/“removals” of a reflective aesthetician from the object of his passion. The protagonist's diary and letters reveal an ideal strategy of love submission, in which Johannes's Don Juanian dexterity, Mephistophelian knowledge of human nature and Faustian penchant for introspection are manifested.

Either-or

The treatise “Either - or” (“Enten - eller”, 1843) is one of the first truly independent works of the outstanding Danish philosopher, theologian and writer Soren Kierkegaard.

It presents for the first time the famous dialectic of the “stages of human existence”: aesthetic, ethical and religious.

The essay, signed with the name of the fictitious “editor” Victor Eremita, compositionally combines two parts: the literary and philosophical “notes” of a certain young “aesthetician” and the lengthy letters of his opponent, an ethically motivated judge, as well as the mysterious “Ultimatum”, which represents a rather radical version Christian position.