Every living organism, despite the diversity of its forms and adaptations to environmental conditions, is subject to strictly defined laws in its development.

1) The law of historical development. All living organisms, regardless of their level of organization, have gone through a long path of historical development (phylogeny). This law, formulated by Charles Darwin, was developed in the works of A.N. Severtsev and I.I. Shmalhausen.

Life on Earth originated about 4-5 billion years ago. At first, the simplest unicellular organisms existed on Earth, then multicellular ones, sponges, coelenterates, nemerteans appeared, annelids, molluscs, arthropods, echinoderms, chordates. It was chordates that gave rise to vertebrates, which include cyclostomes, fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals and birds. Thus, our domestic animals, historically, have gone through a very complex path of development, and this path is called phylogenesis.

So, phylogenesis (phylo-genus, genesis-development) is historical development certain type animal from lower to higher forms. The Soviet scientist I.I. Shmalgauzen formulated the following principles of phylogenesis:

a) During the development of the organism, differentiation of cells and tissues constantly occurs with their simultaneous integration. Differentiation is the division of functions between cells, some are involved in the digestion of food, others, such as red blood cells, in the transport of oxygen. Integration is the process of strengthening the relationships between cells and tissues that provide the body with integrity.

b) Each organ has several functions, but one of them is the main one. The remaining functions are, as it were, secondary, spare, but thanks to them the organ has the opportunity to transform. For example, the pancreas has several functions, but the main one is the secretion of pancreatic juice for digesting food.

c) When living conditions change, the main function may change to a secondary one and vice versa. For example, the liver in the fetus initially performs a hematopoietic function, and after birth it is a digestive gland.

d) Two opposing processes are always observed in the body: progressive development and regressive development. Regressive development is also called reduction. Organs that lose their functions, as a rule, undergo reduction, i.e. gradual disappearance. Sometimes they are preserved in the form of a rudiment (while maintaining a secondary function) - a rudiment of the clavicle in dogs and cats.

e) All changes in the body occur correlatively, i.e. changes in some organs certainly lead to changes in other organs.

2) The law of unity of the organism and the environment. An organism is impossible without an external environment that supports its existence. This law, formulated by I.M. Sechenov, was developed in the works of I.P. Pavlov, A.N. Severtsev. According to A.N. Severtsev biological progress in animals in the environment is characterized by an increase in the number of individuals, expansion of the habitat and division into subordinate systematic groups. It is achieved in 4 ways:

a) by aromorphosis, i.e. morphophysiological progress, as a result of which the organization of the animal becomes more complex and there is a general increase in vital energy (crustaceans, arachnids, insects, vertebrates);

b) by idioadaptation, i.e. private (useful) adaptations, but at the same time the organization of the animal itself does not become more complicated (protozoa, sponges, coelenterates, echinoderms);

c) by cenogenesis, i.e. embryonic adaptations that develop only in embryos and disappear in adults (sharks, lizards, tuataria);

3) The law of integrity and indivisibility of the organism. This law is expressed in the fact that each organism is a single whole, in which all organs and tissues are closely interconnected. This law, formulated back in the 13th century, was developed in the works of I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov.

4) The law of unity of form and function. The form and function of the organ form a single whole. This law, formulated by A. Dorn, was developed in the works of N. Kleinberg and P.F. Lesgaft.

5) The law of heredity and variability. During the emergence and development of life on Earth, heredity played an important role, ensuring the consolidation of the achieved evolutionary transformations in the genotype. It is inextricably linked with variability. Thanks to heredity and variability, the existence of diverse groups of animals became possible.

6) The law of homologous series states that the closer the genetic species are, the more similar morphological and physiological characteristics they have. This law, formulated by I. Goethe, J. Cuvier, E. Haeckel, was developed in the works of N. I. Vavilov.

7) The law of saving material and space. According to this law, every organ and every system is built in such a way that at minimal cost building material he could do maximum work (P.F. Legavt). Confirmation of this law can be seen in the structure of the central nervous system, heart, kidneys, liver.

8) Basic biogenetic law (Baer-Haeckel).

Anatomy studies the body throughout life: from the moment of its origin to death, and this path is called ontogenesis. So, ontogeny (onto-individual, genesis-development) is the individual development of an animal. Ontogenesis is divided into two stages: prenatal (which occurs in the mother’s body from the moment of fertilization to birth) and postnatal (which occurs in the external environment after birth until death).

The prenatal stage includes three periods: embryonic, prefetal and prenatal. And the postnatal stage is six: neonatal period; milk period; juvenile period; puberty; the period of morphofunctional maturity and the gerontological period. Each of these stages is characterized by certain morphofunctional features.

Studying the development of animals, especially in prenatal ontogenesis, K. Baer and E. Haeckel established that “ontogenesis briefly repeats phylogeny.” This provision is called the basic biogenetic law and says that animals are in the process of individual development successively pass through the stages that their ancestors went through in the course of historical development. The Soviet scientist A.N. Severtsev supplemented this law with the words: “... but ontogenesis is also the basis for phylogeny.”

General principles of animal body structure.

All domestic animals are characterized by general principles body building, namely:

Bipolarity (uniaxiality) is the presence of two poles of the body: the head (cranial) and the caudal (caudal).

Bilaterality (bilateral symmetry) is expressed in the similarity in structure of the right and left halves of the body, therefore most organs are paired (eyes, ears, lungs, kidneys, thoracic and pelvic limbs...).

Segmentation (metamerism) - nearby parts of the body (segments) are similar in structure. In mammals, segmentation is clearly expressed in the axial part of the skeleton (vertebral column).

The law of tube-shaped construction. All body systems (nervous, digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive...) develop in the form of tubes.

Most unpaired organs (esophagus, trachea, heart, liver, stomach...) are located along the main axis of the body.

Man must obey the laws of nature, because... These are objective laws and are an order of magnitude higher than the laws of society. In total, over 250 laws have been discovered, let’s name the basic laws of the development of nature (according to N.F. Reimers):

• 1. The law of biogenic migration of atoms (V.I. Vernadsky). One of the main needs is to preserve the living surface of the Earth in a relatively unchanged state. This law determines the need to take into account impacts on biota in any nature transformation projects;
• 2. The law of internal dynamic equilibrium (any changes in the environment, matter, energy, information, etc. inevitably leads to the development of natural chain reactions or to the formation of new ecosystems, the formation of which, with changes in the environment, can become irreversible);
• 3. The “All or Nothing” Law (H. Bowling). Useful for environmental forecasting;
• 4. Law of constancy (Vernadsky V.I.). The amount of living matter in nature is constant. A consequence of the law is the rule of mandatory filling of ecological niches, and indirectly the principle of exclusion (T.F. Gause);
• 5. The law of the minimum (J. Liebig). The body's endurance is determined by the weakest link in the chain of environmental needs;
• 6. Law of limited natural resources (all Natural resources The lands are finite;
• 7. The law of development of the natural system due to environment. Absolutely isolated self-development is impossible. The Earth's biosphere develops not only at the expense of the planet's resources, but also under the control influence of space systems (solar);
• 8. The law of reducing the environmental intensity of finished products (human efficiency is from 2 to 5%, the rest goes to waste);
• 9. Law of decline in natural resource potential. With one production method and one type of technology, natural resources become less accessible and require increased labor and energy to extract them;
• 10. The law of reducing the energy efficiency of environmental management. Costs per unit of natural products increased by 58-62 times compared to stone age. Energy consumption per person (kcal/day) in the Stone Age was 4 thousand, in an agricultural society 12 thousand, in advanced industrial countries it is now 230-250 thousand. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the amount of energy per unit of agricultural production has increased by 8 -10 times. The overall energy efficiency of agricultural production is 30 times higher than in conditions of primitive agriculture. A tenfold increase in energy costs for fertilizers and equipment provides an increase in yield of only 10-15%;
• 11. The law of diminishing (natural) soil fertility (50% of arable land in the world has already been lost with an average loss rate of 7 million hectares/year). Intensification of agricultural production makes it possible to obtain more yield with less labor input and partially neutralizes the effect of the Law of Diminishing Returns, but at the same time the energy efficiency of production decreases;
• 12. The law of physical and chemical unity of living matter (V.I. Vernadsky). All living substances on Earth are physicochemically united. Any physico-chemical agents that are fatal to some organisms (pest control) cannot but have a harmful effect on others (a person poisons himself with poisons and pesticides!);
• 13. Law of ecological correlation. (Especially important for the conservation of animal species);
• 14. B. Commoner’s “laws” of ecology: 1) everything is connected to everything; 2) everything has to go somewhere; 3) nature “knows” better. 4) nothing is given for free.

The life experience of any person allows him to establish himself in the opinion that the processes taking place in the real world have a certain order. Day gives way to night, a newborn child grows old, the planets move around the Sun in their orbits. thinking man came to the conclusion that nature has a definite, stable and repeatable connection between phenomena, processes, and objects. Later, with the emergence of science, people expressed the connection between phenomena that they observed and understood in the concepts of “law” and “regularity.”

A law is an internal, essential, stable, necessary and repeatable connection between phenomena, taken in its generalized form in relation to a specific object of objective reality, i.e. inanimate and living nature.

Laws are products of human cognition and knowledge, but in their internal content they express objective processes occurring in the really existing world. The discovery and formulation of laws are the main tasks of science, therefore scientists, each in their own field scientific research, are in a constant search for regularity, order, stable trends in the connections between phenomena, in identifying natural relationships between objects, which subsequently transform

rotate into new laws of nature. A person’s ability to achieve a harmonious connection with inanimate and living nature is determined by his level of knowledge of the laws of nature, as well as the skills and abilities to use these laws.

The laws of nature are to a certain extent related to such a phenomenon as determinism , but are not identical to it. Thus, in accordance with the provisions of determinism, we can talk about the universal conditionality of natural phenomena. Laws express the qualitative stability of the identified connections, assessing them from the point of view of objective necessity and qualitative regularity. As a result, we have reason to assert that the law, as an expression of objective necessity, can act as measures predictability of events.

For example, legal investigators, having learned and comprehended the laws of behavior of organized criminal groups, will be able not only to predict their actions, but also to prevent the occurrence of the actions of these groups in a specific social situation, at a specific time.

The phenomenon of law manifests itself as a dialectical combination of the principle of the universal connection of phenomena and processes taking place in the real world, and the principle of development, which reflects the objective desire of all things to change, leading to the emergence of new high-quality formations. The law in the intricacies of the real world helps to comprehend not only the connections in the phenomena and processes that exist in nature, but also the “mechanism” of the emergence and formation of the new, which is an attribute of a constantly developing and enriching world.

Classification laws are implemented according to for various reasons. For example, from the standpoint of quantitative and qualitative changes that occur in inanimate and living nature, all laws can be divided into two large groups: 1) laws of functioning; 2) laws of development.

Laws of operation express an essential, necessary connection between objects, phenomena, and processes coexisting in space and time. For example, law universal gravity , formulated by I. Newton, expresses the magnitude of the force of attraction between two bodies depending on their mass and the distance between them. It is applicable to characterize the connections that exist between all bodies that do not belong to the microworld.

Laws of development express the causes and sources of those changes in the real world that lead to the emergence of new qualities, and also reveal the directions where these new qualities may arise. For example, law of photosynthesis reveals the reason, source, as well as the algorithm for converting carbon dioxide into oxygen by tree leaves, if the necessary lighting of these leaves is present. K. L. Timiryazev was the first to substantiate the process of development, transformation inorganic substances carbon dioxide and water in organic. Thus, from both a chemical and a physical, dynamic point of view, photosynthesis is the basis for the development of life on planet Earth. In accordance with the law, during photosynthesis, the amount of light energy spent on the formation of one gram-molecule of hexose is equal to 686 large calories.

volume of a sphere their actions, then all laws can be divided as follows:

a) general, universal, covering all of nature; b) private, operating only in a limited area, the sphere of natural phenomena and processes. So, for example, to general laws of development include philosophical laws of development : the law of unity and struggle of opposites; the law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones; the law of negation of negation (Fig. 4.2). Moreover, due to the fact that they cover natural phenomena in general, reflecting significant and stable connections between phenomena, they manifest themselves to a greater extent as laws-trends, i.e. reflect source , mechanism And direction any development.

The law of unity and struggle of opposites expresses the cause and source of development and asserts that objects of the real world are interconnected, united and at the same time change by dividing the unified into different and opposite, forming the internal impulse of its change towards identity or opposition.

By turning to this law, we have the opportunity to identify not only the cause and source of development, but also to determine the forms of movement and types of development. Man, turning his gaze to the objects of the real world, identified the differences in the forms of beings located in unity. For example, we ourselves are carriers of divergent positions, views, which we correlate, compare and even come to disputes about one "I" with another “I” living in a single “body”. It's all there contradiction as defined type of interaction various tendencies, divergent sides, properties, qualities within a particular structure as a system or between systems, the process of “collision” of different, divergent in direction, up to opposites, forces and aspirations.

Differences can be different, but they are relations of dissimilarity, non-identity of objects both in themselves and with other objects. Limiting case significant difference is opposite.

Opposite is the extreme stage of development of a side, the quality of an element within a specific object or objects in a single system.

Objects confront each other within a single relationship. A good example of such unity is a magnet with its oppositely directed poles. The dialectical principle of contradiction reflects the dual relationship within the whole: unity opposites and their struggle. At the same time, the unity of opposites, expressing the stability of the object, and the opposites themselves by the fact of their existence relative , transitory , in the sense that they are characteristic of specific properties and qualities. The struggle of again and again formed opposites absolute , which is a condition for the infinity of the development process.

Contradictions are characteristic of the very essence of objects as an attribute of all forms of existence of matter; they determine the activity of the latter, its internal readiness for development. In philosophy there are different types of contradictions", internal and external; basic (main) and non-core; antagonistic and non-antagonistic.

Rice. 4.2.

Internal contradictions express the state of a specific system as a certain integrity, because each system exists within a hierarchically more complex systems. For example, contradictions within a small group of a collective are a struggle between individuals within communities consisting of two or three people, which may be accompanied by the collapse of this group or a change of leader, or some other consequence.

External contradictions represent interaction two trends , properties or qualities of different systems , which are in unity. An example is the contradiction between the prosecution system and the defense system in a court hearing. In these systems, the direction of consideration of an act can vary from a non-coinciding trend to the directly opposite. Here the contradiction can manifest itself not only in form of dispute , but also on level of conflict.

It should be noted that in the relationship between the role of internal and external contradictions in the development of all things in nature, priority belongs to internal contradictions. This ratio does not change, even if the initial reason for the development of the system is an external contradiction, because in the future the external contradiction necessarily turns into an internal one through a change in the structure of a particular object.

In the list of internal contradictions that determine the development of the subject, we can highlight basic (main) and non-core contradictions. The main contradictions include those that are present in the essential properties, characteristics of a particular object. For example, in the development of a person, the process of becoming a socially mature personality, the main contradiction, the source of his internal transformations, will be the contradiction between a socially significant goal, formulated by him, and the result that a person achieves in his activity. The minor contradictions that determine the formation of a socially mature personality include the contradictions between her natural needs and her ability to satisfy these needs.

At the same time, considering contradictions as source development, we must say what is the meaning of this source. From the standpoint of a philosophical approach, in this case we are talking about the “force” that gives rise to something. Controversies encourage everything that exists is subject to change and development. It can also be said that nature of the contradiction determines and nature of dynamics those changes that an object receives from its main contradiction potential.

What is special about social systems is that they may contain antagonistic in its potential for contradiction. They arise between social systems, which have features, properties, tendencies that are directly opposite to each other. Contrary connections and interactions arise or are established between such systems. In the future, these contradictions can rise to the level of conflict, which can develop into a revolution or war. As confirmation of this type of contradiction, one can cite

a number of examples from modern world experience in the development of countries in the Middle East.

Along with antagonistic social systems, there are also non-antagonistic contradictions that usually arise between social systems that have features, properties, and tendencies that do not coincide with each other. For example, in the modern world community there are various legal families: Romano-Germanic, Anglo-Saxon, religious-communal. They interact with each other and determine their development while maintaining contradictions between them.

Development in inanimate and living nature is a process that combines the unity continuous And intermittent. Continuity involves quantitative changes occurring in objects in the real world. Discontinuity means the transition of an object to a new quality. The "mechanism" of this process reveals the law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.

Thus, with the manifestation of a contradictory principle inside an object of the real world, things begin to happen in it. quantitative changes, i.e. in the very structure of the object, additions appear in the form of relationships between its individual elements, in their properties, features, their number increases or decreases, etc. All this is reflected in the category “quantity”.

To establish the quantitative certainty of the parts of an object and the objects themselves, we correlate and compare its characteristics with a certain “standard” as a unit of counting and measurement. At the same time, quantitative changes in the development of an object express its relative stability, which presupposes the preservation of the self of the elements of the object or the object itself as it originally was. For example, a student at a university remains a student for a certain period of study, although he receives the status of a second, third, fourth year student. He acquires new knowledge, develops new skills, develops the necessary for professional activity competencies. The potential of his professional culture is growing, but only after successfully defending his diploma and passing state exams the student moves into the category specialist (bachelor ). Thus, at a certain stage, new components that still characterize the student as a student give the previous properties and traits such changes that lead the student to a completely different quality - Specialist (bachelor).

Quality is a set of features and properties of an object that reflect its essence, internal certainty and make the given object what it really is.

The quality of an object allows one to distinguish one object from another but its essence and at the same time compare objects, identify them and contrast them with each other, unite and separate, design

and construct new objects not only in reality, but also in thinking.

The manifestation of the qualities of one object in connection with another significantly depends on the essential properties of the latter. The result of a lawyer’s influence on jurors at a court hearing to a certain extent depends on personal and professional qualities the latter. We can say this: the quality of an object interacting with other objects appears as relative. For example, in connections with wood, steel is hard, in connections with diamond, steel is soft. Any qualitative condition of an object is relative. Under the influence of certain conditions or contradictions, one quality can disappear, but not otherwise than turning into another.

This transformation occurs within a certain measures. It should be noted that the category “measure” was one of the main ones for the thinkers of Antiquity. Whatever philosophers discussed, they always used it to justify the emergence of a new quality. The measure acted and acts now as a “third component” that connects quantity and quality into a single whole. Considering the process of “transforming” a student into a specialist (bachelor), we designated the measure by the number of years of study, noting that the measure is the unity of quantity and quality and at the same time a certain “border” in which quality manifests itself in its certainty. It is a characteristic of a pattern, because the root element of the latter is measure - the sphere of quantitative changes within the framework of one quality.

The emergence of a new quality means the emergence of a new object with new laws of its existence. At the same time, the depth of qualitative changes in the subject may vary. For example, as part of a student’s education at a university, there may be a transition from one quality to another as a transition from one course of study to another. In relation to objects of nature in general, qualitative changes can occur at one level of the movement of matter, or they can occur in such a way that objects move from one type of movement of matter to another.

In philosophy, the process of radically changing the original quality of an object to a completely new one, i.e. The transition from one form of motion of matter to another is characterized by such a category as a “leap”.

The leap is a peculiar demarcation line, separating one measure of change in quantitative transformations in an object while maintaining the existing quality, into another measure that involves quantitative changes in an object, but in a different form of movement of matter.

A leap is a philosophical category that reflects the magnitude of qualitative changes in an object or objects in relation to each other, the transition from one measure of quantitative changes in an object to another measure that characterizes the object in a new form of its existence.

Exist Various types jumps. They are determined both by the initial components of objects in the real world and by the conditions in which these objects develop. In other words, leaps are determined by the source material of objects, as well as by the nature of internal and external contradictions that determine their development. Jumps can be long or short. For example, the process of the emergence and development of living things and life on planet Earth can be called long leaps. Short jumps include, in particular, an explosion of TNT or a nuclear bomb.

The law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, reflecting the “mechanism” of development, also has methodological significance. Thus, it directs lawyers to carefully study and take into account all quantitative changes that led to the appearance of some, at first glance, unexpected, qualitative changes in the case, person, or event under consideration. From the standpoint of formulating a decision, this law requires judges to identify the measure within which human rights and the requirements of the law will be in unity.

In numerous shifts some objects by others, which a person can observe and record, a dialectical process of formation qualitative certainty of all natural phenomena, formation And destruction "nodal" structures of objective reality. At the same time, the observed changes that occur in nature have logic And direction. It allows us to identify the direction of development law of negation of negation , which argues that in development a new quality does not simply deny the previous one, but through the second negation objects appear with a new quality containing the essential features of the original quality of the developed object. In other words, through the second negation, the qualities of the original object in their development are reproduced in the new object, but with the acquisition of some new characteristics that were not characteristic of the essence of the original object.

It is not easy to demonstrate this, since in nature this process takes a certain duration. For an example that to a certain extent confirms the operation of the law of negation of negation, we can use the process of growing grain crops. In spring, grains are sown in the ground. They sprout and the stalks of these grains “negate” the quality of the grain. In the fall, the resulting grains deny stems, but reproduce grains with characteristics that somehow change the essence of the grain sown in the spring. This different stages existence-non-existence of grain. In this process, there is a subtle interweaving of the new with the old, combining the extreme moments of the passing and the emerging. It turns out that the value of negation is determined a measure of its productivity. In other words, the value of negation lies in the extent to which its role introduced such changes into the new quality of the object that were progressive, because the new in the object cannot assert itself not only without negation, but also without continuity.

There are two types of continuity: 1) continuity with quantitative changes in the subject of development; 2) continuity with qualitative changes in the subject of development.

Succession under quantitative changes occur in an object when its main content is the structure or organization of this object. For example, such succession occurs during the reproduction of living organisms of the same species.

Mri succession quality changes occur in an object when its structure is transformed. In this case, the content of continuity is the essential features of the subject of development. For example, such continuity is present during vaccination fruit trees. Here, in continuity for the new quality, there will be the essential characteristics of a tree that is resistant to a certain strip of our country, as well as the tree whose fruits we would like to receive.

In general, the past cannot be considered as disappearing without a trace into the river of time. It constantly participates in the creation of the present and the future, realizing a living connection between times in the form traditions.

In the philosophical aspect, tradition represents a certain type of relationship between successive stages of a developing object. What each generation achieves in any area of ​​human life is a precious heritage, the growth of which is the result of the savings of previous generations. Reasonableness and responsibility in inheriting the traditions of the past in combination with the new determines the progressive development of society. Wherein development is not a straight line or movement in a closed circle, but spiral with an infinite number of turns. In the process of development, there is a return to previously passed stages, because in the new form some features of already existing forms are repeated. However, this is not a simple return to the original form, but a qualitatively new level of existence of the object. Each subsequent development cycle does not repeat the previous one, but is a qualitatively new level. Wherein new as a result of the development process itself becomes old against the backdrop of the emergence of more new and is denied by this newer one, i.e. development is directed from old to new and from new to newer. These are general laws development.

Particular laws of development act only in a limited area of ​​natural existence. Such laws include the laws of development of animal species, for example, laws of phylogenetic development , which were established mainly by zoologists. According to data

laws evolutionary changes are always adaptations to changed environmental conditions. These changes arise and develop as a result of natural selection, which was brilliantly substantiated back in the middle of the 19th century. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) in his classic work “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life” (1859).

If we take as a sign of classification of laws form their manifestations, then the laws of nature can be divided into dynamic And statistical (probabilistic). An example of a dynamic law is law of attraction. Any object thrown upward from the surface of the planet Earth will definitely return to the ground if it does not move at a speed of more than 8 km/s. Any person can perform this action and see the final result. At the same time, if you toss a coin up, rotating it, then it is impossible to determine exactly which side it will fall on the ground. In this case, the statistical law manifests itself.

This distinction between dynamic and statistical ways of manifesting necessity is sometimes used to contrast the concepts of “law” and “regularity”. Thus, in the case of a dynamic method of manifestation of necessity we're talking about O law When statistical the way necessity manifests itself speaks of patterns.

This gradation of law and regularity is not entirely correct, since they cannot be opposed. Both law and regularity are an expression of the manifestation of necessity. However, a pattern, unlike a law, reflects not a stable manifestation of objective necessity, but only identified the degree of probability of its manifestation. For example, the law as a necessity in a specific social object acts as a pattern for it. The fact is that development in social objects is carried out through the activities of people and is adjacent to the random. In this regard, it is impossible to determine the nature of people’s activity completely and comprehensively. Regularity is a form of manifestation of law due to the incompletely known essence of the object where there is social way manifestations of necessity.

A pattern is internal, essential, necessary, but not consistently manifested connection between phenomena, taken in a generalized form in relation to a specific object of objective reality, where there is no known essence of it.

There are laws and patterns in inanimate and living nature. It is not someone’s will, but the internal contradictions inherent in objects of the real world that determine the development of the latter, ensuring the multicolored and multi-aspect nature of life, which does not obey any schemes or dogmas. This is especially clearly manifested in the social form of the movement of matter, where all the laws of development of sociohistorical organisms are implemented through the activities of people. A person consciously “realizes” the sometimes hidden potential of social laws, giving them a unique “sound” determined by personal creativity.

T E O R I I

LAWS

Biogenetic law (F. Muller, E. Haeckel, A. N. Severtsov). The ontogeny of an organism is a brief repetition of the embryonic stages of its ancestors. In ontogenesis, new paths of their historical development - phylogenesis - are laid.

Law of germinal similarity (K. Baer). On early stages The embryos of all vertebrates are similar to each other, and more developed forms go through the stages of development of more primitive forms.

Law of Irreversibility of Evolution (L. Dollo). An organism (population, species) cannot return to the previous state already achieved in the series of its ancestors.

Law of evolutionary development (C. Darwin). Natural selection based on hereditary variability is the main driving force in the evolution of the organic world.

Laws of inheritance (G. Mendel, 1865).

Gamete frequency hypothesis (G. Mendel, 1865): The pairs of alternative characters found in each organism do not mix during the formation of gametes and one from each pair passes into them in a pure form.

Law of chained inheritance (T. Morgan, 1911) Linked genes localized on the same chromosome are inherited together and do not show independent distribution

Law of homological series of hereditary variability (N.I. Vavilov, 1920) Genetically similar species and genera are characterized by similar series of hereditary variability.

Law of genetic balance in populations (G. Hardy, V. Weinberg). In an unlimitedly large population, in the absence of factors that change the concentration of genes, with free crossing of individuals, the absence of selection and mutation of these genes and the absence of migration, the numerical ratios of genotypes AA, aa, Aa from generation to generation remain constant. The frequencies of members of a pair of allelic genes in populations are distributed in accordance with the expansion of the Newton binomial (pA + qa) 2.

Law of energy conservation (I. R. Mayer, D. Joule, G. Helmholtz). Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but only transferred from one form to another. When matter passes from one form to another, the change in its energy strictly corresponds to the increase or decrease in the energy of the bodies interacting with it.

Law of the minimum (Yu. Liebig). The endurance of an organism is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its environmental needs, i.e., the minimum factor.

Rule of interaction of factors: the body is able to replace a deficient substance or other active factor with another functionally similar substance or factor.

Law of biogenic migration of atoms (V.I. Vernadsky). Migration chemical elements on the earth's surface and in the biosphere as a whole, it is carried out either with the direct participation of living matter (biogenic migration), or it occurs in an environment whose geochemical features are determined by living matter, both that which currently constitutes the biosphere and that which existed on Earth throughout geological history.

LAWS OF M E R N O S T I