to the word grub, which meant “hump”, “hill”, “hillock”. For comparison, this is also where the name of the hump-nosed pigeon breeds comes from - “mushroomed”.

In some Russian dialects, all mushrooms are called the word lips, but to a greater extent this applies to the popular names of some tinder fungi - “lips”, “sponges”. In this form the word passed into some Slavic languages, for example, into Czech ( hoby) and Slovak ( huby). Latin fungus comes from Greek σφογγος , also denoting a sponge, a porous body.

Another interpretation derives the word “mushroom” from the verb “row” (“row”) - when growing, the mushroom is “raked” out of the ground.

A connection with Old Russian is also possible glib- mucus, sticky substance (compare with the Lithuanian word gleivės, having the same meaning). This root passed into the South Slavic languages: Slovenian gliva, Serbian giva. In Ukrainian glyva- name of oyster mushroom.

Systematic position and origin

For a long time, fungi were classified as plants, with which they are similar in their ability to unlimited growth, the presence of a cell wall, adsorptive nutrition, for which they have a very large external surface (rather than phagocytosis and pinocytosis), and the inability to move. But due to the lack of chlorophyll, fungi are deprived of the ability for photosynthesis inherent in plants and have a heterotrophic type of nutrition characteristic of animals, they deposit glycogen, and not starch as a storage substance, the basis of the cell wall is chitin, not cellulose (except for oomycetes), they are used in metabolism urea - all this brings them closer to animals. They are distinguished from both animals and plants by the presence in many groups of a dikaryonic phase and perforations in the intercellular septum.

As a result, fungi have been recognized as a separate independent kingdom, although they have a polyphyletic origin from various flagellated and non-flagellate unicellular organisms. The latter gave rise to zygomycetes, from which higher fungi are derived. Oomycetes may have evolved from heteroflagellate algae. Forms close to modern ones appeared a very long time ago; spores similar to those of Saprolegniaceae are 185 million years old.

Structure

Most fungal cells have a cell wall; only zoospores and vegetative cells of some primitive fungi lack it. 80-90% of it consists of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous polysaccharides; in most, the main polysaccharide is chitin, in oomycetes it is cellulose. The cell wall also includes proteins, lipids and polyphosphates. Inside there is a protoplast surrounded by a cytoplasmic membrane. The protoplast has a structure typical of eukaryotes. There are storage vacuoles containing volutin, lipids, glycogen, fatty acids (mostly unsaturated) and other substances. One or more nuclei. Different groups have different predominant ploidy stages.

Classification

There is currently no generally accepted classification of fungi, so the information given in the literature or other sources may vary significantly among different authors.

Asco-, basidio- and deuteromycetes are often grouped into the group Higher Fungi ( Dikarya).

Other small groups are also distinguished.

Role in biocenosis

Fungi can live in various environments - in soil, forest floor, water, decaying and living organisms. Depending on the method of consumption of organic substances there are:

Meaning for humans

Food use

Edible mushrooms

Various microscopic fungi are used in the food industry: numerous yeast cultures are important for the preparation of vinegar, alcohol and various alcoholic beverages: wine, vodka, beer, koumiss, kefir, yoghurt, as well as in baking. Mold cultures have long been used to make cheeses (Roquefort, Camembert), as well as some wines (sherry).

Due to the high content of chitin in mushrooms, their nutritional value is low and they are difficult to digest by the body. However, the nutritional value of mushrooms lies not so much in their nutritional value, but in their high aromatic and taste qualities, so they are used for seasonings, dressings, dried, salted, pickled, and also in the form of powders.

Poisonous mushrooms

Mushrooms and preparations made from them are widely used in medicine. For example, in oriental medicine they use whole mushrooms - reishi (ganoderma), shiitake, cordyceps, etc. In folk medicine, preparations from porcini mushroom, fungus, some tinder fungus and other species are used.

The list of official preparations contains numerous preparations from mushrooms:

• substances extracted from the culture medium of penicillium and other fungi (used in the production of antibiotics).

Use for hallucinogenic purposes

Some types of mushrooms contain psychoactive substances and have a hallucinogenic effect, so ancient peoples used them in various rituals and initiations; in particular, fly agaric mushrooms were used by the shamans of some peoples of Siberia.

Use as pesticides

Preparations based on micromycetes.

Many fungi are capable of interacting with other organisms through their metabolites, or by directly infecting them. The use of agricultural pesticides from some of these fungi is being considered as an opportunity to control population sizes of agricultural pests, such as insect pests, nematodes, or other plant-damaging fungi. For example, entomopathogenic fungi are used as biopesticides (for example, the drug Boverin from Beauveria bassiana, other drugs from Metarhizium anisopliae, Hirsutella, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus And Verticillium lecanii (=Lecanicillium lecanii). Fly agaric has long been used as an insecticide.

Technical Application

The production of citric acid based on biotechnology - microbiological synthesis - has become widespread.

Damage to the farm

A large number of different pathogenic fungi are known to cause diseases of plants (up to 1/3 of the growing crop and during storage are lost annually due to their fault), animals and humans (dermatoses, diseases of the hair, nails, respiratory and genital tract, and oral cavity). They cause severe food poisoning. Wood-destroying fungi cause rapid destruction of wood materials, buildings and products, and therefore are considered pathogenic in forest phytopathology.

Literature

• "Funghi", - Instituto Geografico De Agostini, Novara, Italy, 1997
• Bondartseva M.A. Key to mushrooms of Russia. Order Aphyllophoraceae. St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1998. Vol. 2
• Garibova L.V., Sidorova I. I. Mushrooms. Encyclopedia of Russian nature. - M.: 1999
• Garibova L.V., Lekomtseva S.N. Fundamentals of mycology (morphology and taxonomy of fungi and fungi-like organisms). M.: KMK, 2007
• Gorlenko M.V. and etc. Mushrooms of the USSR. - M.: 1980
• Dyakov Yu., Shnyreva A., Sergeev A. Introduction to fungal genetics. M.: Academy, 2005
• World of plants. in 7 volumes / Ed. A.L. Takhtajyan(chief ed.) and others. T. 2. Mushrooms. / Ed. M.V. Gorlenko. 2nd ed., revised. - M.: Education, 1991. - 475 pp., 24 sheets: ill. - ISBN 5-09-002851-9
• Tobias A. Morphology and reproduction of fungi. M.: Academy, 2006
• Fedorov F.V., Mushrooms. - M., Rosagropromizdat
• Cherepanova N.P. Taxonomy of fungi. - St. Petersburg: SSU Publishing House, 2005

Mushrooms reproduce using spores, as well as particles of mycelium, sclerotia and other elements. Any structure that can cause the development of young mycelium is called a diaspora, or propagule. Taking into account their origin, diaspores are divided into specialized, that is, those formed specifically for reproduction (spores), and non-specialized (in particular, pieces of mycelium).

Reproduction by unspecialized diaspores is called vegetative due to the fact that it is carried out using parts or elements of the vegetative bodies of fungi. Regarding filamentous fungi, it should be noted that they reproduce exclusively through pieces of mycelium. This method is used to propagate many types of mushrooms in culture, for example champignons, summer honey mushrooms, oyster mushrooms, etc.

Reproduction methods

Fungal spores are intended solely for reproduction. In their structure, one or several cells are distinguished, which are microscopic in size. Once in a favorable environment, a small number of spores give rise to a new mycelium. Most of them die, so all mushrooms form a huge number of spores. Thus, champignons produce approximately 40 million spores per hour, tinder fungus - up to 30 billion.

Taking into account the origin and function of spores in the life of fungi, there are two ways:

1. Spores of sexual reproduction (meiospores).

2. Asexual (mitospores).

With the help of mitospores, fungi spread en masse during the growing season in the absence of recombination of hereditary properties. With the appearance of new mycelia from meiospores, the diversity of fungi increases due to the recombination of characteristics of the parent organisms. In many fungi, both mitospores and meiospores are formed in the life cycle. But in some groups of fungi - deuteromycetes, which unite 30 thousand species, the ability to sexually reproduce is completely reduced. They form only mitospores.
For the formation of mitospores in fungi, special cells (reproductive organ) are used - sporangia, or branches of aerial mycelium. The first spores are called sporangiospores, and the second, formed exogenously, are called conidia.

Sporangiospores can be immobile or have flagella, which gives them the ability to actively move. These are so-called zoospores, which move only in an aquatic environment, and accordingly, reproduction is possible only in the presence of a drop-liquid medium. Reproduction by zoospores is characteristic of all groups of primarily aquatic forms of fungi. In terrestrial species, the ability to produce them has been lost.

In most fungi, asexual reproduction using conidia is widespread. These structures are formed in higher fungi with cellular mycelium on the hyphae of aerial mycelium, most often on special branches - conidiophores. They are small and are formed in huge quantities. The release of conidia is carried out in most cases passively; less often, active discarding is possible, as in nigrospora. During the process of evolution, conidia have acquired multiple adaptations that facilitate their spread.

Meiospores are formed in fungi inside or on the surface of special cells called bursae, asci, or basidia. These are the reproductive organs of fungi. A large group of fungi - ascomycetes, or marsupials - is characterized by the formation of bags with meiospores. Basidia with meiospores are formed in a large group of basidiomycetes, or basidiomycetes (about 30 thousand species). The release of basidiospores or ascospores occurs through their active discarding from the basidium or ascus. When two meiospores merge, a zygote is formed, which, when exposed to favorable conditions, gives rise to a new mycelium

How does fungi reproduce? What is the function of the fruiting body and what does it consist of? What are the methods for propagating mushrooms?

Do you know how mushrooms reproduce and what harmful mushrooms contain? At first glance, everything is simple: young mushrooms appear from the ground, and mold appears by itself.

But not everything in Nature is simple and unambiguous. The important process of reproduction occurs with the assistance of small pieces of mycelium, spores, lumps of tightly woven vultures and some other elements.

How do fungi reproduce?

Nature decreed that these ancient inhabitants of the Earth learned to reproduce sexually, asexually and vegetatively.

1. Sexual reproduction is characteristic of higher fungi. New life arises from the fusion of male and female hyphae. This is how the primary mycelium appears. Then, when two primary ones merge, a secondary mycelium appears. With sufficient moisture, a fruiting body grows from the secondary mycelium. Spores appear and mature in the fruiting body. That's how complicated it is.
2. In asexual reproduction, reproduction occurs by budding or sporulation. For example, yeast fungi reproduce by budding - cell division. This is how bacteria multiply. When propagating by spores, the coincidence of several factors is necessary: ​​suitable soil, external favorable conditions and the presence of two spores of different sexes. Such coincidences happen quite rarely, so the number of spores from one mushroom is several billion.
3. Reproduction by vegetative method is carried out by individual particles of mycelium. Small particles are separated from the main mass and begin an independent life.

Reproduction of cap mushrooms.

How do boletus mushrooms, chanterelles and boletus mushrooms reproduce? It should be noted that the fungus itself is a reproductive organ. And the most important part of the mushroom, the mycelium, is hidden underground. Curious mushroom pickers have probably seen thin white threads extending from the fruiting body.

The mycelium consists of cells that consist of two nuclei. When a certain time comes, a fruiting body grows from the mycelium. By the way, the cap and stem of the fruiting body consist entirely of mycelium threads. However, the cap has two layers: an upper leathery layer and a lower one. The bottom layer may have many small tubes or many thin plates. It is on the lower layer of the cap that numerous spores are formed. Once ripe, the spores are carried by the wind and forest dwellers over long distances.

Under favorable conditions, the spores germinate and form a hypha. Gradually the hypha grows and turns into mycelium. Mycelium is the actual mushroom. The mycelium gradually grows and can live for many years. Near cities, the soil becomes contaminated with toxic industrial waste and the mycelium dies. That is why the number of edible mushrooms in our forests is decreasing.

Kira Stoletova

To save money and get environmentally friendly products, people grow various crops, including mushrooms, in their dachas (using utility rooms for this purpose). They are easy to grow both in the garden and indoors. To effectively organize the growing process, you need to understand what mushroom propagation is and what the specifics of this process are.

Features of the structure of mushrooms

Before we talk about methods of reproduction of fungi, you need to understand what these organisms are. They combine some of the characteristics of animals and plants, which is why they were united into a separate kingdom - Mushrooms. After much debate, scientists who could not decide which species they should be classified as, assigned a separate kingdom to mushrooms.

Initially, this group of organisms lived in the waters of the oceans. After some time, for unknown reasons, they changed their habitat, moving to the forest. They are united with the kingdom of Plants:

• ability to reproduce by spores;
• absorptive method of nutrition;
• presence of a cell wall;
• the presence of vacuoles in the cell;
• unlimited growth, etc.

They are related to the kingdom of Animals:

• metabolic product - urea;
• absence of plastids (including chloroplasts);
• heterotrophic nutrition;
• the presence of chitin in the cell wall;
• reserve nutrient - glycogen, etc.

Not everyone has an idea about the structure of a mushroom. It consists of mycelium (mycelium, or vegetative body), which plays an important role in the process of reproduction, and the reproductive organs themselves. The mycelium is underground. It consists of thin, colorless threads through which nutrition occurs.

It is difficult to find another organism that could adapt so well to environmental conditions.

Mushroom propagation

Reproduction of mushrooms united into a separate large kingdom occurs in 3 ways:

• vegetative;
• asexual;
• sexual.

Those. They reproduce using all methods known to science today.

Vegetative method of propagation

This method is convenient to use when growing crops in the country, in the basement or on mushroom farms. Its essence lies in the division of the mycelium. Some parts of a certain size are separated from the main vegetative body and placed in an environment where they begin to develop separately. This is the fastest method, often found in the wild.

A feature of the vegetative propagation of fungi is that in many species arthrospores (oidia) and chlamydospores are formed. These cells give rise to new mycelium. Oidia are formed as a result of the breakdown of hyphae. Each such cell gives rise to a new mycelium. A special feature of chlamydospores is that these cells are covered with a dense membrane, sometimes colored in a color different from the color of the mycelium. This shell stores nutrients that allow the cell to “wait out” unfavorable conditions. Chlamydospore remains viable for 7-10 years.

But division through the formation of oidia or chlamydospores is not considered a purely vegetative method. It is classified as a cross between vegetative and asexual reproduction of fungi.

Budding occurs when a new growth appears on the mycelium, which grows over time and becomes a separate organism. At first, the kidney has microscopic dimensions. Among higher organisms, budding is rare, but representatives of the lower class (yeast-like, for example) often use it.

Asexual method of reproduction

In the asexual method, fungi reproduce by microscopic spores. Propagation by spores is similar to using seeds, but planting material is more difficult to collect. Spores are carried not only by the wind, although they most often travel with air currents, but also stick to animal fur. The interesting thing is that these microscopic particles do not sink. When placed in a favorable environment, they develop, forming mycelium.

Spores can form inside or on the surface of spore-bearing organs. They also differ in structure. Some spores are equipped with flagella that allow them to move and are called zoospores. Others do not have such flagella; they are immobile and are called sporangiospores.

Irina Selyutina (Biologist):

Many lower fungi are characterized by the presence of motile zoospores. Zoospores develop in sporangia. Other lower fungi are characterized by sporangiospores that develop in sporangia. Sporangia sit on special hyphae that differ from other hyphae - sporangiocartes. They rise up from the substrate on which they developed. This elevated arrangement of sporangia facilitates the spread of spores by air currents after the sporangium shell has developed.

Asexual reproduction with the help of conidia has been described for marsupials, basidioecies, imperfect and a few lower fungi adapted to terrestrial existence. Conidia are covered with a membrane, they do not have flagella - organs of movement; distribution occurs with the help of air, insects, and humans.

An interesting thing is that the spores grow into copies of the parents with minor mutations.

Spores are intended only to increase the population.

If you look at the number of representatives of the kingdom, you can see that even with the asexual method of reproduction, significant changes in species occur. This is due to the fact that several generations grow over the course of a season, each of which has some changes. And ultimately, minor mutations of each generation lead to the emergence of new species.

Sexual method of reproduction

From the name it is clear that we are talking about the process of merging. During sexual reproduction of fungi, male and female cells (gametes) merge. But this happens in the second stage of reproduction. The first stage involves the formation of these cells. During the process of fusion, spores arise, from which a new organism is formed. In the asexual method, the formation of spores does not involve cell fusion, which is their difference. Cells intended for sexual reproduction may have the same appearance, or they may differ.

It is interesting that lower fungi that reproduce by cell fusion immediately produce a sexual spore. Representatives of the upper class first form mycelium, which is somewhat different from that from which mushrooms appear. This method is also typical for marsupial fungi. But in them, cell fusion occurs directly inside the bag (ascus). The cell formed inside the bag is capable of dividing and forming new spores.

The main role in reproduction by any means is played by the mycelium, which is located underground. If you harvest by cutting off the fruiting body, the mycelium remains intact, because you left part of the stem in the soil. Within 14-20 days it is able to grow a new fruiting body filled with spores. If, during harvesting, the fruiting body is pulled out of the ground (attention! it is pulled out, not twisted), the integrity of the mycelium is violated. It will take a lot of time to restore this organ. The duration of recovery depends on the area of ​​the damaged part of the mycelium.

In cap mushrooms, the spores are located under the cap (on its lower side). The part of the fruiting body where spore formation occurs is called the hymenophore. The layer with spores can be tubular or lamellar. The tubular type of surface assumes the presence of many tubes tightly adjacent to each other, in which the spores are placed. It is impossible to see these tubes without a microscope, which is why the surface looks like a sponge. People call them not tubular, but spongy. The lamellar hymenophore is clearly visible without magnifying instruments. In addition to the types of hymenophore that are familiar to us, there are several more, but we usually use only two, known from school.

The mushroom population numbers about 100 thousand different species. Although some mycologists are of the opinion that the number of fungal species exceeds 1.5 million.

The prevalence of fungi is so great that they can be found not only on land, but also in water, and inside animals and plants.

All existing living organisms are divided into two categories - animals and plants. Mushrooms are classified as plants, although it would be correct to separate them into a separate category.

Fungi feed on the remains of animal or plant origin, and some species feed on the contents of cells and tissues of living organisms. As a result, fungi are classified as heterotrophic organisms (not capable of photosynthesis - forming organic substances from inorganic ones).

Among the many features of mushrooms, the following can be distinguished: the ability of the vegetative body for unlimited growth, reproduction through spores and immobility in the vegetative state.

Mushrooms are spore-bearing plants; they do not have roots, stems or leaves. Fungal cells are made of chitin and are colorless, while green plant cells are made of cellulose.

Mycelium - mycelium

What we are used to collecting and call mushrooms is fruiting body, and the fungus itself is located inside the soil or substrate consisting of cobwebby threads.

Substrate- this is the environment from which the fungus receives nutrients.

The underground web is a mycelium or mycelium, and the threads are hyphae.

The functions of the fruiting body include species preservation and reproduction.

The fruiting body is formed by joining hyphae into dense balls that are constantly increasing. Gradually, the hyphal cells acquire order. At some point, when the cells begin to elongate, the fruiting body breaks through the substrate and its growth begins.

A certain part of the fruiting body is covered by a spore layer. According to its structure, the spore layer is divided into:

• lamellar (spores are on plates;
• tubular (spores are located inside the tubes);
• intrafruit (spores are formed inside the fruiting body. For example, in).

The hyphae of the outer layers are dark in color and have thickened walls. Their main purpose is protective functions. And the hyphae of the inner layers have thin walls. Their purpose is conductive functions.

They can also form resimorphs And mycelial strands, which, in turn, perform conducting functions. Resimorphs and strands are hyphae located in parallel and interconnected. Some of them can reach several meters in length.

Another modification of the mycelium is sclerotia- these are dense weaves of mycelium that protect it from unfavorable conditions.

Fungal reproductive organs are formed on mycelium, are the basis of fungal taxonomy and are very diverse in their structure.

Mushroom propagation process

Fungi reproduce vegetatively, asexually and sexually. Let's consider each of the methods of mushroom propagation in more detail.

1. Vegetative propagation occurs in parts of the mycelium. Part of the mycelium separates and continues to exist independently.

2. Asexual reproduction - This is reproduction by spores. Spores can be without flagella, with one flagellum, or with several flagella.

Spores without flagella are called conidia and are located on the conidiophore hyphae. And spores with flagella are called sporangium and are located on the hyphae-zoosporangium.

Because With the spore method of reproduction, the probability of the formation of a new mycelium is small, then the mushrooms release a huge number of spores (several billion) into the air, which are then carried by the wind.

In order for a new mycelium to be born, the spores must fall to the ground with suitable soil for their development and with favorable external conditions. But for the fruiting body to grow, it is still necessary for two spores of different sexes to take root in one place.

3. The result of spore reproduction is the primary mycelium. Secondary mycelium is formed by the fusion of two primary ones. This is what is called sexual reproduction .

In conditions favorable for development and growth, the secondary mycelium produces fruiting bodies. As in any living organism, mycelium cells contain all hereditary information. The process of accumulation of spores and their maturation occurs in the fruiting body of the fungus.

After full maturation, the spores are ready for their “flight” to give birth to new life in favorable conditions.