More recently, 60-70 years ago, elementary education was synonymous with elementary school. Before the Great October Socialist Revolution, primary school was a closed cycle of teaching elementary practical knowledge and skills. Reading, writing, the simplest arithmetic operations and tasks, elementary information about natural phenomena and from the life of society constituted the main content of education. The system of education, built according to the class principle, created obstacles for the education of the bulk of the population. Primary school did not cover all children, and those who graduated from it could not continue to study in secondary schools. The elementary school did not prepare for further studies, its programs limited the possibilities for the transition to the study of the basics of science. The vast majority of children, after graduating from elementary school, began to work.

Immediately after the Great October Socialist Revolution, the reorganization of all public education in our country began. The content, methods and organization of training have undergone a radical change. Class barriers were eliminated, and a unified labor school was created.

With the growth of the economic power of our country, the need for qualified personnel increased. The technical equipment of the industry has become stronger and more complex and Agriculture... It became necessary to raise the general educational level, first of all, of those people who start vocational training. This required the introduction of first universal compulsory incomplete secondary education, and then universal complete secondary education.

From now on, there cannot be a single teenager or young man who would start professional work without receiving a complete secondary education. Moreover, the mastery of modern specialties and advancement in the field of professional labor are largely determined by the quality of general education. Universal compulsory secondary education should ensure the comprehensive formation of a person's personality as a conscious participant in socialist social relations and production, guided in his life by the norms of communist morality, educated aesthetically, physically developed, possessing the basics of science and capable of working creatively in his chosen field.

The introduction of universal compulsory, first incomplete secondary, and then secondary education, naturally, radically changed the functions of the initial stages of education. Now the primary school sets itself the task not so much of equipping children with elementary practical skills in reading and writing, counting and solving simple arithmetic problems, as the formation of the ability to assimilate a system of scientific knowledge. The elementary school is gradually turning from a closed cycle of practical knowledge into a preparatory stage, organically linked with all the rest, higher stages of complete secondary education.

It would be correct now to call the primary classes not primary schools, but the initial stages of education, no matter how organizationally they are.

Today, there are still many schools located in remote rural areas that have only primary classes, and in order to continue their education, children must leave their places of permanent residence for regional centers or large villages where there are incomplete or complete secondary schools. But these elementary schools, usually small in terms of the set of students, where one teacher teaches and students of different levels of training can be in the same class at the same time, have also now turned from separate, relatively isolated organisms into a link common system learning.

The last two decades have been characterized by significant changes in the strategy of research in child and educational psychology. Instead of the previously widespread simple statement of the course of mental development in the conditions of already established upbringing,

In the educational system, a strategy was developed to study the characteristics and patterns of mental development in the process of forming new, higher cognitive capabilities of children. This was achieved through experimental changes in the content and teaching methods. As a result of the research carried out, a huge amount of factual material has been accumulated on the most diverse issues of the mental development of children and its connection with learning processes; the previous ideas about the age characteristics of the cognitive, in particular the intellectual activity of young and middle-aged children, have been shaken.

The main result of the research is the experimentally confirmed possibility of forming, under certain conditions of education, significantly higher levels of mental development in primary school age. The determining factors in this are the content of teaching and new methods organically connected with it, which lead to a radical change in the processes of assimilation by children of other theoretical knowledge that is much more complex in its content. An increase in the theoretical content of instruction in the primary grades, firstly, leads to its partial convergence with the content of instruction in the middle grades of the school, and secondly, it creates conditions for strengthening the developmental function of teaching. But the latter is feasible only if, simultaneously with the assimilation of theoretical knowledge, younger students learn to independently acquire new knowledge - they learn to learn.

In connection with the transformation of primary education, which was previously a closed cycle, into the initial stage of learning, the tasks facing it are radically changing. Now it is no longer enough to master the basic skills of reading, writing, counting, solving problems. The development of these skills is included in the solution of broader and more important problems.

First, to lead children to subject teaching in the logic of scientific knowledge, to reveal to them those basic and fundamental properties of the studied area of ​​reality, which constitute the content of this science. So, mastering reading skills turns into an introduction to language learning as a means of communication and thinking, and elementary numeracy skills - into an introduction to the study of quantitative relations.

Secondly, to form educational activities in children, which have their own tasks and methods. At the present stage of development of our society, educational activities should be carried out by a person throughout his life. This is the second "profession" of each person, on the ability to carry out which largely depends on the advancement in the main chosen business.

Thirdly, to use all the possibilities of the period of primary education for the formation of motives for learning and for the intellectual development of children.

Recent studies show that all three tasks are closely related to each other and can only be solved in cooperation. In this case, the main importance belongs to the content of the acquired knowledge and the formation of educational activity.

... the main characteristic feature of school education is that upon entering school, a child begins to carry out (perhaps for the first time in his life) socially significant and socially valued activity - educational activity, and this puts him in a completely new position in relation to everyone around him. Through the implementation of a new activity, through a new position, all other relationships of the child with adults and peers, in the family and outside of school, attitude towards oneself and self-esteem are determined. This is the most important educational function of school education, the function of personality formation. With regret, we have to admit that the upbringing value of education, its function in the formation of the personality is often underestimated, the tendency of the child by the time of entering school to carry out socially significant and socially appreciated activities is not supported.

Precisely because educational activity is social in content (it assimilates all the riches of culture and science accumulated by mankind), social in meaning (it is socially significant and socially appreciated), social in the form of implementation (it is implemented in accordance with socially developed norms ), she is the leader in primary school age, that is, in the period of her formation.

Leading in modern Soviet child psychology is understood as such an activity in the process of which the formation of the main mental processes and personality traits takes place, which characterize the main acquisitions of a given period of development. Of course, educational activity is carried out throughout the entire school childhood, the entire stay of a child, adolescent and young man at school, but its functions at each stage are different. In this regard, it is necessary to emphasize that this or that activity carries out its leading function most fully during the period when it takes shape, is formed. Younger school age is the period of the most intensive formation of educational activity.

One of the inherent contradictions of learning activity is that, being social in meaning, content, and form of implementation, it is at the same time individual in terms of the result, i.e., the knowledge, skills, skills, methods of action acquired in the process of learning activity are the acquisition of an individual student. Therefore, there is always the danger of transforming educational activity into an individualistically directed activity. With an individualistic orientation, the social meaning of the activity is lost. In order to avoid this, it is necessary that the knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the process of educational work find application in socially useful labor, and be associated with the life of the class collective. For this, the teacher has a wide variety of tools at his disposal.

The second essential feature of systematic school education is seen in the fact that it requires the obligatory fulfillment of a number for all the same rules that govern the behavior of the student during his stay at school ...

With individual tutoring, many of these rules disappear because the communication between teacher and student occurs directly; in classroom teaching, the teacher's communication with each individual student is included in communication with the class as a whole. Everything that the teacher says and does, referring to an individual student, applies to everyone at the same time, and at the same time, everything that the teacher says, referring to the class, applies to each student. In turn, all of the student's answers to the teacher's questions apply to the entire class. This interconnection of the work of each individual student with the work of the entire class and the work of the entire class with the work of each individual student requires the subordination of the actions of each to certain rules, for if there are no such rules and each student acts on his own immediate motivation, the work of the class will become impossible.

Thus, by their nature, these rules are socially developed methods of behavior that ensure, first of all, the productivity of the work of the entire class team, and, therefore, they are socially directed in their content. By following the rules, the student expresses his attitude towards the work of the class. This is the most important upbringing role of training, which requires a certain attitude from each to the work of the collective as a whole. During the first time in school, the rules are associated with the child's new position of the student and with the fulfillment of this new role. This is very similar to following the rules in a game. If a child takes on the role of a captain or sailor, driver or passenger, then he obeys the rules set by her. If a child follows the rules in school and class well, then by doing so he is a good student, first of all, in his own eyes. However, this attitude towards rules as student attributes is not all. It is not enough for the fulfillment of the rules to express only the student's attitude to himself and his relationship with the teacher. Another thing is important: the implementation of the rules of conduct in the class should express the student's attitude to the class team, to his comrades. The implementation of the rules in this case appears as a form of collectivistic behavior in its direction and content of the individual student. Therefore, when forming obedience to the rules at school, this very moment should come to the fore ...

… Learning activity differs from all others in one very important feature. As a result of simple productive or labor activity, some material product is always obtained. The child sculpted - a fungus or a bunny appeared - a product of his material activity; the child drew - and here is a real house or a horse. This appears even more clearly in work. During productive or labor activity, the person who produces it makes certain changes in the initial materials, as a result of which the product of the activity arises.

Of course, in the course of such activities, changes occur in the person himself. In the process of labor, each person is constantly changing. However, it is not this change in man that is the content of the act of labor; its content is the production of a certain product of a spiritual or material nature. Whether or not there will be a change in the manufacturer himself is not so important for the production process and the manufacturer himself. The product received and its quality are important.

Learning activity is structured quite differently. In it, the child, under the guidance of a teacher, operates with scientific concepts, assimilates them. However, at the same time, he does not introduce any changes into the very system of scientific concepts. Whether the student will act with scientific concepts or not, nothing will happen in science from this. The result of educational activity, in which the assimilation of scientific concepts occurs, is, first of all, a change in the student himself, his development. In general terms, we can say that this change is the acquisition of new abilities by the child, that is, new ways of acting with scientific concepts. And educational activity is an activity of self-change, its product is the changes that occurred during its implementation in the subject itself. This is its main feature.

Of course, educational activity also has external results. The student solved the problem - the result is the solution he received, the student wrote the dictation - the result is the written work. The teacher and the students evaluate these results as an external expression of the changes that have occurred in them. The results are assessed not in terms of their social utility, but as indicators of changes in the student.

Learning activity is an activity that has as its content the mastery of generalized methods of action in the field of scientific concepts. It follows from the definition that such activity should be motivated by adequate motives. They can only be motives directly related to its content, that is, motives for acquiring generalized methods of action, or, more simply, motives for their own growth, their own improvement. If it is possible to form such motives in students, then by this, filling with new content, those general motives of activity that are associated with the position of the student, with the implementation of socially significant and socially evaluated activities are supported.

Only in this way are broad social motives filled with content specifically related to the activity that the student is carrying out. Now the position of the student is not just the position of a student attending school and accurately following the instructions of the teacher and home lessons, but the position of a person who improves himself and thereby carries out socially significant activities. The activity of acquiring new abilities becomes socially significant and socially appreciated. Personal success, personal improvement thus acquire a deep social meaning. Therefore, the process of the formation of educational activity has a great educational value, which until now has been clearly insufficiently assessed.

The motives of activity characterized by us are called educational and cognitive. Their difference from broad cognitive interests is that they are aimed not just at acquiring information about a wide range of phenomena in the surrounding reality, but at mastering generalized methods of action in a specific area of ​​the studied subject.

Thus, the first most important element of the structure of educational activity is educational and cognitive motives. Their formation is the most important task of primary education, and the success of further education largely depends on how much such motives are formed in the primary grades.

The second most important element of the structure of educational activity is the educational task. An educational task is not just a task that a student performs in the classroom or at home, and above all it is not one task, but a whole system. As a result of solving the system of tasks, the most general ways of solving a relatively wide range of issues in this scientific field are discovered and mastered ...

... In general, it should be emphasized that teaching, which implies the possibility of direct transfer of knowledge from teacher to student, direct "transplantation" of knowledge into the student's head, simple binding of knowledge to the subject, bypassing the actions of the student himself with the subject, is the most ineffective teaching. It only loads the memory of students, leaving knowledge verbal and formal. The concept is simply communicated; it must be formed through the actions of the child himself with the object.

Thus, the correct solution of individual specific tasks should be a consequence of the formation of a general method of action. The most important thing in the formation of educational activity is to transfer the student from an orientation towards obtaining the correct result when solving a specific problem to an orientation towards the correct application of the learned general method of action.

An important element of the structure of educational activity is educational operations that are part of the method of action, expressing its operator content. Operations are very varied and numerous ... the development of our society ... As a rule, operations enter the mode of action in a certain sequence, and the observance of the latter, strict adherence to it, constitutes a special operation.

Every mode of action is assimilated first with the full development of all the operations that are part of it and, if possible, produced materially, that is, so that the correctness of their implementation can be monitored. Even pedantry is required here. Until one operation has not been performed accurately and in accordance with the rule, it is impossible to proceed to another. The method of action is assimilated the better, the more fully the composition of the operations included in it is presented and the more carefully each of them is worked out. The deployment of the entire set of operations that go into action is also important because it creates the possibility of real leadership and control on the part of the teacher. This is control over the implementation of each individual operation and their correct sequence ...

... One of the most important components of educational activity is control. Control, as we have already said, should be understood primarily as control over the correctness and completeness of the operations that are part of the actions. With regret, we have to admit that in ordinary work practice, control very rarely takes this form. As a rule, result control prevails. Moreover, we ourselves teach children exactly this kind of control. So, in order to check the correctness of an arithmetic operation, students are advised to check it with another action: addition - by subtraction, division - by multiplication, etc. Thus, it is not the correctness of individual operations and their sequence that is checked, but the result obtained.

By fostering the mindset to obtain the correct result and to control the result, inattention can be formed. Attention is, above all, careful control of the process of action. Therefore, the formation of students' control over the process, over the correctness of each operation and their sequence is not only a means of mastering the main educational action, but - and this is no less important - a means of forming attention.

Outcome control only makes sense if it returns to process control, and this occurs only when the student has made a mistake. But even in this case, it is much more expedient to return the student to the expanded action and procedural operational control. As we have already said, the main form of control in educational activity is operational control, that is, control over the correctness of the process of implementing the method of action.

The final control is evaluation. Evaluation also primarily refers to the course of action, that is, to the extent to which learning task... Actually, the function of assessment in educational activity is to determine whether the student has mastered a given method of action and whether he has moved one step higher in this respect. Thus, assessment refers to the performance of the entire learning task as a whole. Yes, you can do this and can move on, or, on the contrary, you have not yet mastered this method of action and you need to work on some operations - this is the evaluation function. Therefore, the control works that are carried out for the purpose of assessment must first of all disclose the degree of mastery of the action as a whole and of the individual operations included in it. Our analysis leads to the conclusion that educational activity is a complex structure of education. It includes, firstly, educational and cognitive motives; secondly, the training tasks and the training operations that make up their operational content; third, control; fourth, evaluation. Central to this complex structure is the second link - educational tasks and their operator content. All other links, as it were, serve this main thing.

The formation of educational activity is a very complex and lengthy process. It is formed in collaboration with the teacher. A child who comes to school does not have an educational activity. Everything is done by the teacher: he sets the educational task, he gives its full operational-subject composition, samples of the performance of each individual operation and their order, he controls the process of performing each action and operation, he finally evaluates whether the educational task has been completed by each student, and if not, what elements should be improved.

The formation of educational activity is a process of gradual transfer of the implementation of individual elements of this activity to the student himself for independent implementation without the intervention of the teacher. The question of how to most rationally form educational activity, in what sequence to transfer its individual elements for independent implementation, has not yet been resolved.

There is reason to believe that it is most rational to start with the formation of self-control. Children must first of all learn to control each other and themselves. Of course, in order for children to learn control, it is necessary that the educational action with its operator-subject composition is presented in a sufficiently developed manner, and the latter is developed jointly by the teacher and students. In this case, the patterns of actions will appear before the students not as given from the outside, and therefore random, but as necessary and generally obligatory.

(Selected psychological works. M., 1989. p. 223-228, 241-251. The text is given in abbreviation)

Questions for self-control

1. Give a definition to the concepts of "learning activity", "learning task". Show the difference between an educational task and a concrete-practical task.

2. Without what motive is educational activity impossible? Why?

3. What should be the focus of control in order for students to form learning activities? Why?

4. What is the structure of educational activities presented in the works

D.B. Elkonin.

Topic 5. Principles of teaching

Correspondence of the system of principles to the objectives of learning: Regularities, principles and rules of learning.

Classification of the bases for the allocation of principles. Analysis of the basic systems of teaching principles and characteristics of the ways of their implementation. The focus of the system of principles on the humanization of learning.

The main

1. Kazansky N.G., Nazarova T.S. Didactics (Primary classes). M., 1978 p. 55-89

2. Podlasy I.P. Pedagogy. M., 1996. Part 2. Topic 4. § 4.

3. Sitarov V.A. Didactics. M., 2002. Chapter 4, § 2.

4. Slastenin V.A., Isaev I.F., Mishchenko A.I., Shiyanov E.N. Pedagogy. Tutorial... M., 2000. Section 3. Chapter 11, § 4.

Additional

1. Yakimanskaya I.S., Abramova S.G., Shiyanova E.B., Yudashina N.I. Psychological and pedagogical problems of differentiated education. //Pedagogy. 1991. No. 4.

2. Chernyshova T.G. We need individualization of the educational process. // Primary school. 1997. No. 5.

Brainstorming Questions

1. General concept of didactic principles.

2. Various grounds for identifying principles in didactics,

3. Characteristics of various systems of principles of didactics.

4. Characteristics of the principles of teaching: the essence of the didactic principle and the ways of its implementation.

Tasks

1. Conduct a comparative analysis of the systems of principles in the works indicated in the list of basic literature. Make up the common core of these systems. Express your opinion on different approaches to highlighting the principles of didactics.

2. Based on the completion of the first task, build your own system of didactic principles. Justify its appropriateness.

3. Compile a bibliography on the topic "Individualized Approach to Learning in Learning as a Didactic Principle". Write an abstract on one of the articles in this bibliography. To compile a bibliography, use collections, monographs, journals "Pedagogy", "Questions of Psychology", "Primary School", "New School" (for the last 2-3 years).

4. Make a fragment of the lesson synopsis, which shows the implementation of the scientific principle. Is it possible to show on the same fragment the implementation of other didactic principles? How is it possible to do this?

5. Analyze the summary of the lesson in nature studies (Appendix No. 5) according to the following scheme:

Similar information.

L. S. Vygotsky, following the idea of ​​the socio-historical nature of the psyche, interpreted the social environment not as a "factor" but as a "source" personality development. In the development of a child, he notes, there are two intertwined lines. The first follows the path of natural maturation. The second is to master the culture, ways behavior and thinking. He noted that in the course of mental development, the initially existing simple ("natural") mental processes and functions (perception, memory, thinking, etc.), entering into complex relationships with each other, are transformed into qualitatively new functional systems, specific only to humans (verbal thinking, logical memory, categorical perception, etc.).

The auxiliary means of organizing behavior and thinking that mankind has created in the process of its historical development are systems of signs-symbols (for example, language, writing, number system, etc.).

The learning process is interpreted by Vygotsky as a collective activity, and the development of the personality traits of a child has the nearest source his collaboration with other people.

Any higher mental function in the mental development of a child, according to Vygotsky, appears on the stage twice: the first time - as a collective, social activity, and the second time - as an individual activity, as the child's internal way of thinking.

Mental development is not limited to the assimilation of social experience. In the process of development, a qualitative transformation of the child's personality itself occurs, and it occurs on the basis of his own vigorous activity and their own active attitude to the environment.

The question of the relationship between learning and development for a younger student is central. Already by the beginning of the 30s. of the last century, more or less clearly defined the main psychological theories that investigated the relationship between learning and development. L. S. Vygotsky in his article "The problem of learning and mental development at school age" analyzed the main theoretical approaches to this problem.

The first scientific point of view is based on the idea of independence of child development from learning processes O - R. In this case, learning is understood as a purely external process that uses the achievements of development. This theory was adhered to by such psychologists as A. Gesell, 3. Freud, and others. The views of the outstanding psychologist J. Piaget on the mental development of children also corresponded to this theory. The named psychological theory corresponds to the famous didactic principle of accessibility (according to it, a child can and should be taught only what he “can understand”, for which he has already matured certain cognitive abilities).

According to second point of view for this problem learning is development O = R. At the same time, learning completely merges with child development, when each step in learning corresponds to a step in development, and development is understood as the accumulation of all kinds of habits. For example, the prominent American psychologist W. James was a supporter of this theory. In Russia, the direction of this theory was developed by such well-known Russian psychologists as G.S.Kostyuk, N.A.Menchinskaya, and others.

Third point of view involves trying to overcome the extremes of the first two approaches by simply combining them O ↔ R. According to this version, development prepares and makes learning possible, and the latter stimulates and propels development forward. While mastering a particular operation, the child at the same time masters a certain general structural principle, the scope of which is much wider than that of the given operation. Therefore, mastering a separate operation, children later get the opportunity to use this principle when performing other operations, which indicates the presence of a certain developmental effect.

L.S.Vygotsky, in resolving this issue, did not agree with any of the points of view, even with the third, which he apparently sympathized with. He formulated his hypothesis about a more correct solution to the issue under discussion. Education, according to Vygotsky, is the driving force behind mental development. Without training, effective mental development of a child is impossible. "Development processes do not coincide with learning processes; the former follow the latter, creating zones of proximal development." This hypothesis, according to Vygotsky, establishes the unity, but not the identity of the learning processes and internal development processes. It involves the transition from one to the other. He formulated an important proposition about two levels of mental development of a child: this level of actual development(the current level of preparedness, determined using tasks, which the student can do on their own) and the level that determines the zone of proximal development. Zone of proximal development - it is the distance between the level of the child's actual development and the level of possible development. This level is determined using tasks, solved under the guidance of adults."The zone of proximal development determines functions that are not yet ripe, but are in the process of maturation; functions that can be called not fruits of development, but buds of development, flowers of development.<...>The level of actual development characterizes the success of development, the results of development for yesterday, and the zone of proximal development characterizes the mental development for tomorrow. "

Thus, learning is not the same as development. It creates zone of proximal development(ZPD), i.e. arouses in the child an interest in life, stimulates and sets in motion the internal processes of development, which at first are possible for the child only in the sphere of relationships with others and cooperation with comrades. The zone of proximal development is a logical consequence of the law of formation of higher mental functions, which are formed first in joint activities, in cooperation with other people and gradually become the internal processes of the subject. When a mental process is formed in joint activity, it is in the ZPD. After formation, it becomes a form of actual development (Fig. 1.2).

Rice. 1.2.

The ZPD phenomenon testifies to the leading role of education in the mental development of children. "Education is only good," wrote Vygotsky, "when it goes ahead of development." Then it awakens and brings to life many other functions that lie in the ZPD.

With regard to primary school, this means that learning should be oriented not so much towards matured functions, completed developmental cycles, but rather towards maturing functions. Training opportunities are largely determined by the ZPD. Learning can be guided by the already passed development cycles - this is the lowest learning threshold, but it can be guided by not yet matured functions, to the zone of proximal development, which characterizes the highest learning threshold. The optimal training period is located between these thresholds. A child in school carries out activities that constantly give him the opportunity to grow. This helps him rise above himself.

The zone of proximal development determines the capabilities of the child much more significantly than the level of his actual development. According to the test results, two children show the same level of actual development, however, the ZPD in these children is different. One child, with the help of leading questions, examples, demonstration, solves problems two years ahead of time, and the second child - only six months in advance. The dynamics of mental development in the course of learning, as well as the dynamics of the assimilation of knowledge, will be different for these children and, accordingly, the same more high level they will reach their actual development at a different time and at different rates. Thus, it is precisely the determination of the zone of proximal development - the child's abilities, with prompting prompts from an adult, to perform a task that is still difficult for an independent solution and is the main one. diagnostics of learning.

L. S. Vygotsky emphasized that the state of a child's development is never determined only by its matured part, the zone of actual development; it is necessary to take into account the maturing functions, the zone of proximal development, and the latter is assigned the main role in the learning process.

Vygotsky's ingenious guess about the importance of the zone of proximal development in the life of a child made it possible to end the dispute about the priorities of learning or development: only that learning is good that anticipates development.

In the 60s and 70s. XX century in our country, psychological and pedagogical research has begun on various problems of developmental education in the field of primary education. The results of these studies made it possible, firstly, to experimentally substantiate the position of the leading role of education in the mental development of children, and secondly, to determine some specific psychological and pedagogical conditions for its implementation.

P. Ya. Galperin developed a theory of the stage-by-stage formation of mental actions, which was successfully implemented in practice, primarily in primary school. The initial theoretical postulates were the following provisions developed in domestic psychology by L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinstein, L. N. Leontiev:

• - any mental function appears first as external, interpsychic, and then as internal, intrapsychic; those. every psychic is a transformed, internalized external (L. S. Vygotsky):
• - psyche (consciousness) and activity are a special type of unity: the mental is formed in activity, and activity is regulated by the mental (S. L. Rubinstein);
• - internal, mental activity has the same structure as external, objective activity (A. N. Leont'ev).

P. Ya. Halperin distinguished two parts of the mastered objective action: its understanding and the ability to perform it. The first part plays the role of orientation and is called indicative, second - executive.

P. Ya. Halperin attached particular importance to the tentative part, considering it a "governing authority", later he would call it a "navigational map".

The condition for the formation of actions is indicative basis of action(OOD) is a system of guidelines and instructions, explanations of the teacher, informing them of information about all the components of an action that a student must perform when completing an educational task (subject, product, means, composition and procedure for performing operations).

Both in school and in life great importance has how fully and accurately we were oriented in performing any action and how we can then use this orientation when performing an action similar, but not identical.

P. Ya.Gal'perin and N.F. Talyzina carried out a typology of OOD according to three criteria:

• - the degree of completeness (the presence in it of information about all the components of the action: object, product, means, composition, order of operations);
• - the measure of generality (the breadth of the class of objects to which this action is applicable);
• - the method of obtaining (how the subject became the owner of this OOD).

Accordingly, there are three types of OOD and three types of training.

First type of training characterized by an incomplete composition of the OOD, landmarks are presented in a private form and are allocated by the subject himself by means of blind tests. The process of forming an action on the basis of such an OOD is slow, with a lot of mistakes. For example, both a textbook and a Russian language teacher give samples of words and sentences, demonstrate a grammatical phenomenon, analyze it and formulate a spelling rule. The same is done in geometry, physics, etc.

Second type of training characterized by the presence of all the criteria necessary for the correct execution of the action (action according to the detailed algorithm). But the above criteria are given to the subject: first - in finished form, the second - in a private form, suitable for orientation only in this case. The formation of an action with such an OOD is quick and error-free. However, the scope of the transfer of action is limited by the similarity of the specific conditions for its implementation.

The third type of training- OOD has a complete composition, landmarks are presented in a generalized form, typical for a whole class of phenomena. In each specific case, the OOD is compiled by the student independently using the general method that is given to him. The action formed by the third type of OOD is characterized not only by the error-free and quickness of the formation process, but also by great stability, breadth of transfer.

For example, general schemes and algorithms are given that are used in many cases: analysis of a word by composition and as a part of speech, analysis of a sentence by the presence of a stem and other characteristics. The teaching proceeds relatively quickly, without errors, with an understanding of the essential (insignificant) attributes of the object and the conditions of action with them, the transfer of knowledge and actions to all specific cases in this area is ensured.

Phased formation of mental actions according to this classification, it corresponds to the third type. But the success of such training is due not only to a complete, generalized and independently created OOD, but also to working out an action at different levels of its formation (in different forms).

Using the principle of interiorization, P. Ya. Halperin posed the task of "revealing the secrets of the origin of the mental process." Ideal actions (performed in the field of perception, speech plane and mind) are considered as derivatives of external, objective, material actions. Therefore, in order for the action to be formed in its highest, mental form, it is necessary to trace the entire path of its formation - from the material form. P. Ya. Halperin developed a complete scheme for this transformation. Determining the conditions that ensure the transfer of external action to the internal plan, he distinguishes six stages of the formation of mental actions.

First stage – motivational. There is a preliminary acquaintance of students with the purpose of learning, the creation of internal or cognitive motivation. Problem situations can be used to create cognitive motivation (N.F. Talyzina).

The second stage is drawing up the scheme of the OOD. The student understands the content of the assimilated action: the properties of the object, the sample result, the composition and procedure of executive operations.

Third stage – the formation of an action in a material or materialized form. The action is performed as external, practical, with real objects (material form of action), for example, when counting, shifting of any objects. The action is performed with the transformed material: models, diagrams, diagrams, drawings, etc. (materialized form). In this case, all operations of the action are realized, and their slow execution allows you to see and understand the content of both operations and the entire action as a whole. A prerequisite for this stage is the combination of the material form of action with speech, which makes it possible to separate the assimilated action from those objects or their substitutes with the help of which it is performed.

When the action begins to flow smoothly, unmistakably and more quickly, the orientation card and material supports are removed.

Fourth stage – formation of action in loud speech. The student, deprived of the material support of action, analyzes the material in a loud socialized speech addressed to another person. This is both a speech action and a message about this action. The speech action should be detailed, the message - understandable to another person who controls the learning process. At this stage, a leap occurs - a transition from an external action to a thought about this action. The mastered action undergoes further generalization, but remains unabridged, non-automated.

Fifth stage – formation of action in external speech "to oneself". The student uses the same verbal form of action as in the previous stage, but without pronunciation (even without a whisper). Here, operational control is possible: the teacher can specify the sequence of operations performed or the result of a separate operation. The stage ends when fast and correct execution of each operation and the whole action is achieved.

The sixth stage is the formation of action in inner speech. The student, solving the problem, communicates only the final answer. The action becomes abbreviated and easily automated. But this automated action, performed at the fastest possible speed for the student, remains error-free (if errors appear, you must return to one of the previous stages). At the last, sixth stage, mental action is formed, the "phenomenon of pure thought" appears.

Comparing the gradual formation of mental actions with the spontaneous learning of a child (the first type of learning), it should be noted, first of all, the advantages in the sustainability of the achieved positive results. The significance of this theory lies in the fact that it indicates to the teacher how to build learning in order to effectively form knowledge and actions using the main didactic tool - the orienting framework.

The development of the ideas of L. S. Vygotsky in the theories of developing education is associated, first of all, with the names of L. V. Zankov, D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov.

Developmental education system- a new approach to teaching children in the existing problematic world. Created by domestic scientists, it has entered the practice of schools in Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Belarus, Latvia. The system is of great interest to French, German, Dutch, Canadian, Norwegian and Japanese teachers. In Norway, for example, developmental education is being actively implemented not only in the primary (as it generally happened in Russia), but also in the middle, senior level of the school, in colleges and universities.

For the first time, the question of the need to create more effective system teaching, influencing the development of schoolchildren, was delivered in the 50s. last century Russian teacher and psychologist, a student of L. S. Vygotsky, L. V. Zankov. After Vygotsky's death, Zankov became one of the leaders of the Scientific and Practical Institute of Defectology (now the Institute of Correctional Pedagogy of the Russian Academy of Education), where experimental studies of the development of abnormal children were carried out, in which the conditions of their effective teaching... In the laboratory, under the leadership of Zankov, work began to build a more effective training system junior schoolchildren.

L. V. Zankov criticized the traditional teaching methods. Programs and teaching methods in primary grades do not provide the maximum possible general development of students and at the same time provide a low level of knowledge and skills. This is because the teaching material is lightweight and primitive with a low theoretical level, the teaching method relies on the memory of students to the detriment of thought, the limitation of experimental knowledge leads to verbalism, the curiosity and individuality of children is ignored, a slow pace of learning is practiced.

In developing his training system, Zankov proceeded from the position of L. S. Vygotsky: training should lead development. He showed what training should be so that it can lead development.

The general development of younger schoolchildren in the framework of Zankov's experimental work was considered as the development of:

• - abilities, namely, observation, the ability to perceive phenomena, facts (natural, speech, mathematical, aesthetic, etc.);
• - abstract thinking, the ability to analyze, synthesize, compare, generalize, etc .;
• - practical actions, the ability to create some material object, to perform manual operations, developing at the same time perception and thinking.

The system of education leading development is based on didactic principles developed by scientists. Unlike traditional didactic principles, they are aimed at achieving the general development of schoolchildren, which ensures the formation of knowledge. The principles are as follows:

• - the leading role of theoretical knowledge in primary education;
• - training at a high level of difficulty;
• - learning at a fast pace;
• - awareness by schoolchildren of the learning process;
• - purposeful and systematic work on the general development of all students, including the weakest.

Particular importance is attached to the principle of teaching at a high level of difficulty. According to this principle, the content and teaching methods are structured in such a way as to induce active cognitive activity in mastering the educational material. Difficulty is understood as an obstacle. The problem lies in the knowledge of the interdependence of phenomena, their internal connections, in the rethinking of information and the creation of their complex structure in the mind of the student.

This is directly related to the principle of the leading role of theoretical knowledge, which means: the formation of actual, applied knowledge, skills occurs on the basis of understanding scientific concepts, relationships, dependencies, on the basis of deep theoretical knowledge and general development. The high level of difficulty is also associated with the principle of fast-paced learning. Its essence is not in increasing the volume of educational material or shortening the terms of study, but in the constant enrichment of the student's mind with versatile content, the inclusion of new and old information in the knowledge system.

The principle of schoolchildren's awareness of the learning process, with all the closeness, does not coincide with the generally accepted principle of consciousness. It is required to teach the student to be aware not only of the object of activity - information, knowledge, skills, but also the process of mastering knowledge, their activities, cognitive methods and operations.

Finally, the fifth principle requires the teacher to conduct purposeful and systematic work on the overall development of all students, including the weakest. For the successful mastery of knowledge, it is necessary to ensure that everyone, especially the weak, progress in general development. This requires special attention to the formation of the motives of learning, internal, subjective stimuli of the cognitive interest in intellectual growth.

The totality of the principles of the didactic system is implemented in the content of primary education and in teaching methods in all subjects.

In the 60s. of the last century, the laboratory of L.V. Zankov developed programs and methods of primary education. The experimental system has influenced learning not only in primary school.

Research on developmental learning is available from other didactics: N. A. Menchinskaya, V. V. Davydov, N. F. Talyzina. They showed the possibilities of didactics high school to build the learning process as developing, using a number of methods and techniques in the organization of educational activities.

The problem of developmental education is most fully developed in the concept of educational activities by D. B. Elkonin and V. V. Davydov. This system took shape and was legally entrenched in Russian education in the 70s. XX century as an alternative to the traditional education system (in 1996, by the decision of the Board of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, it was recognized as one of the three state systems).

"The theory of developmental education was developed by us," wrote V.V.Davydov, "in line with the basic ideas of Vygotsky's scientific school and at the same time develops and concretizes these ideas themselves ... In the theory of developing education, the concept of a zone of proximal development acquired the functions of a common real organization of educational activities, in which the assimilation of knowledge by schoolchildren takes place in the form of their constant dialogue and discussion cooperation and communication both with each other and with the teacher. "

Developmental learning was born from theory and not from experiment or analysis of practical learning experience, i.e. first there was a theory about learning ahead of development, and then developmental learning itself became a fact of practice.

It is important to note that the concept of developing education arose in those historical conditions when the reform of school education proclaimed in the country needed to be freed from the factors that hinder the mental development of children. These included the orientation of primary education to that level of mental, in particular, mental development, which is achieved during preschool childhood.

Psychologists have also found that traditional primary education is not accompanied by significant developmental success, since it does not break away from the empirical thinking inherent in the preschooler.

Paying attention specifically to the development of the type of thinking of the student, V.V.Davydov focused on the different roles of sensory and rational cognition, and in the latter he distinguished empirical and theoretical thinking.

V empirical thinking there is a designation of sensually given properties of objects and their connections, abstraction of these properties, their unification into classes and generalization on the basis of the formal identity of their individual properties, the establishment of explicit external connections of objects and their external changes during interaction.

V theoretical thinking the establishment of implicit hidden connections is carried out, causes of entity entities, roles and functions relations of things within the system. The establishment of such an internal relationship and connection of objects is carried out on the basis of analysis, which includes reflection, modeling, transformation of objects with going beyond the limits of sensory representations. After analysis, identifying the essence of an object the ascent to the original sensually-concrete whole begins (for example, on the basis of the theory, make a description of a specific phenomenon, object, etc.).

If, in the empirical method, the objects of assimilation are separate aspects of reality, the possibility of cognition of which is limited by the framework of the objects themselves, then in the theoretical method, not separate fragments of reality (real objects, their properties and relations) are assimilated, but theoretical objects in which general connections and relations are crystallized not sensuously presented.

For example, the equality - inequality relations ( a = b, a> b, a< b) are universal, i.e. applicable for any size of measurement (weight, length, volume, area, etc.). This type of assimilation makes it possible to rise above the world of specific things and identify the most general connections and patterns. This method does not exclude, but presupposes subsequent reliance on concrete facts, without which the fundamental scientific concepts themselves would be meaningless.

The authors of the concept of developing education have developed an idea of ​​the reference educational activity as cognitive, built on a theoretical type. The organization of training, built according to the theoretical type, according to V.V.Davydov and his followers, is most favorable for the mental development of the child, therefore, the authors called such training developing."As shown by psychological and pedagogical observations and research," wrote Davydov, "in principle, any learning to one degree or another contributes to the development of children cognitive processes and personality (for example, traditional education develops empirical thinking in younger students). We, ”he continues,“ do not describe developmental education “in general”, but only that type of it that we correlate with school age and is aimed at developing theoretical thinking and creativity in schoolchildren as the basis of personality. "

The purpose teaching on this concept is not so much the assimilation of knowledge and skills as development of cognitive abilities, which acts as a specially organized learning process.

Learning in this concept is understood as the formation of personal qualities student: knowledge and understanding of oneself, the ability to control the process of assimilating new knowledge, the ability to critically assess one's own and others' actions, independence in assessments and self-assessments, the habit of looking for evidence, a tendency to debatable ways of finding answers to any questions, the ability to argue one's opinion are developed.

Such training is carried out in the joint educational activity of the teacher and the student, in which the teacher tries to explain less himself, and more to direct the students' mental search activity in the right direction. So, in grade 1, even before studying specific types of spelling, children discover the very existence of a spelling as a problem of choosing a letter and learn to ask (an adult, dictionary, reference book) about each spelling they do not know. If you can teach a child a systematic "spelling doubt", which is based on the ability to separate known and unknown spelling, then you can ensure error-free writing long before knowing all the spelling rules.

Learning content is any theoretical concept (for example, length, area, number, etc.). The study of the topic begins with solving mental problems, and not, as usual, with particular examples. The academic subject not only expresses the system of knowledge, but in a special way (through the construction of its content) organizes the child's cognition of the initial, theoretically essential properties and relations of objects, the conditions of their origin and transformation.

Teaching methods in terms of the developmental system, they are quite different from the traditional ones. Classes are mainly held in the form of a discussion (dialogue): students not according to the teacher's words, but independently seek and find answers to theoretical questions. At the same time, the teacher asks questions that encourage thought. The questions are asked in such a way that students rely as much as possible on the previously learned theory and thereby learn to apply it in practice. It should be noted that the questions are directed not only to the respondent ("Why do you think so?"), But also to the rest ("Someone disagrees?"), Which contributes to the general activity.

A special way of organizing educational activities, which the teacher implements, includes all forms of cognitive activity and determines the student's subjective activity. The choice of the method of educational work should be laid down in the very content of the assignments. For example, a teacher communicates knowledge about phenomena and their essence, and students are invited to derive an explanation of specific initial phenomena from the essence (to explain the properties of specific elements on the basis of a periodic law, characteristics of organisms based on the laws of heredity, etc.). The student gets the opportunity to reproduce in his own activity the logic of scientific knowledge, to climb from the abstract to the concrete. Or students are encouraged to try to find an explanation for some of the facts themselves, of course, with the help of a teacher.

Theoretical concepts, corresponding mental actions are the logical tool with which the facts and phenomena of the surrounding reality are analyzed. Assigned for assimilation in a specially organized system, they form a scientific understanding of the world.

The individual consciousness of a child is understood as an interiorized social consciousness. Therefore, teachers try to ensure that in the classroom products of public consciousness in the form of concepts and all common ways actions were reproduced in the individual consciousness of the student.

It is important to emphasize that a source development of a child with this type of learning lies outside the child himself- in training, and specially designed for these purposes. The theoretical thinking of a child is formed through a special construction of the academic subject, a special organization of educational activity.

V.V.Davydov formulated the main provisions characterizing not only the content of academic subjects, but also those skills, which should be formed among students in the assimilation of these subjects in educational activities.

"1. The assimilation of knowledge that is of a general and abstract nature precedes the acquaintance of students with more particular and specific knowledge; the latter are deduced by students from the general and abstract as from their single basis.

• 2. The knowledge that constitutes a given academic subject or one hundred basic sections, students acquire, analyzing the conditions of their origin, thanks to which they become necessary.
• 3. When identifying the subject sources of certain knowledge, students should be able, first of all, to find in the educational material a genetically original, essential, universal relationship that determines the content and structure of the object of this knowledge.
• 4. Pupils reproduce this attitude in special subject, graphic or letter models, which make it possible to study its properties in a pure form.
• 5. Students should be able to concretize the genetically initial, universal relation of the object under study in the system of private knowledge about it in such a unity that ensures the thinking of the transition from the general to the particular and back.
• 6. Students should be able to move from performing actions mentally to performing them externally and vice versa. "

Thus, in the theory of developmental learning, there are three closely related concentrates:

• 1) purposeful educational activity, including educational and cognitive motives, a goal in the form of an educational task, educational actions;
• 2) theoretical thinking;
• 3) educational reflection.

Only in the presence of all three components can we talk about developing learning precisely in the sense of the system of D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov. Therefore, for development standard with this type of teaching, indicators that characterize theoretical thinking are taken: reflexivity (the subject's ability to select, analyze and correlate his own ways of activity with the subject situation); goal setting; planning; the ability to act internally, to exchange the products of knowledge.

This type of training promotes development independence of the student's thinking and actions, based on a firm knowledge of what he has learned and what he has to learn, i.e. there is a reflexive development of schoolchildren.

The teacher here must create such conditions under which the student is encouraged to independently compose an indicative basis of action and act on it. In this case, students make significantly fewer mistakes, and they occur mainly at the very initial stage. The skill thus formed reveals the property of broad transfer to the performance of many tasks.

At the same time developmental learning does not develop those abilities that are initially non-reflective - gullibility, imitation, tolerance. This teaching does not pay much attention to calligraphy.

The main achievements of that psychological and pedagogical system, which is reasonably called "the theory of developmental education of Elkonin - Davydov," VV Davydov himself summarized as follows. According to this theory content developmental primary education are theoretical knowledge, method- organization joint educational activities of junior schoolchildren, and product development - the main psychological neoplasms, inherent in primary school age. At present, the ideas of this theory are being implemented in the construction of experimental educational subjects (physics, chemistry, geography, literature) at subsequent educational levels.

Salmina N.G. Sign and symbol in training. - M., 1988. (Semiotic function as an indicator of children's readiness for school: 169-210.)

A teacher's study of the mental development of six-year-old students: Guidelines... - Kiev, 1984. (Study of the motives of the teachings of six-year-old children: 29-57.)
Karpova S.N., Truve E.I. Psychology of speech development of a child. - Rostov-on-Don, 1987. (The problem of preschooler mastering the phonemic side of speech: 5-27. Unorganized process of mastering the phonemic side of speech by a child: 27-49. Organized process of mastering the phonemic side of speech by a child: 49-88.)
Kotyrlo V.K. The development of volitional behavior in preschool children. - Kiev, 1971. (Volitional behavior of a preschooler: 51-78. \ Features of volitional efforts in preschoolers: 121-145.)
Lisina M.I., Kapchelya G.I. Communication with adults and psycho-logical preparation of children for school. - Chisinau, 1987. (The influence of communication with adults on the psychological preparation of children for school: 44-57.)
Development of logical memory in children. - M., 1976. (Memory of preschoolers: 22-71. Self-control in mnemonic processes in \ preschoolers: 187-246.)

Organization of teaching children in the lower grades of the school. The objective nature of the difficulties faced by the child at the beginning of school. The main problems of the adaptation period: inclusion in new activities, entry into new system relationships, getting used to an unusual daily routine and work, the emergence of new responsibilities, the need to manifest such personality qualities as discipline, responsibility, perseverance, perseverance, efficiency and hard work. Ways to overcome the difficulties of the adaptation period to school. Additional moral stimulation of the child for success. Formation of the main components of educational activity in him: training activities, actions to control and evaluate the results of I work. Reasons for intellectual passivity and lagging behind children in primary grades, ways to eliminate them. Group forms of organizing classes in the first months of school.
Teaching younger students at home. The special importance of home study work with first graders. Formation of independent learning activities. Development of speech and thinking through the improvement of writing. Presentation, retelling of what has been read, seen or heard, writing letters and short essays are the main means of developing speech .. Two main directions of improving the theoretical and practical thinking of primary schoolchildren. The role of mathematical, linguistic exercises, everyday tasks in improving the thinking of a child. Various types of creative activity: design, drawing, modeling - as a means of improving practical and visual-figurative thinking.
Play and work activities among younger students. Changing the nature of the games of children at primary school age. The emergence and distribution of games of competitions and construction games that contribute to the development of business intellectual qualities in children. Teaching a child to work. The developmental value of children's sports games. Developing types of work. Organization of child labor at school and at home. Labor as proactive, independent and creative work. The need for child labor and ways to stimulate it.
Sources of mental development of younger children school age... Print, radio, television, various types of art as sources of intellectual development of primary school children. Fine arts as a means of developing and enriching the perception of the world, as a way to get rid of the egocentric point of view. Development of the child's ability to correctly understand and accept someone else's point of view. The art of film and television as a means of expanding and deepening the vision of the world. The developmental possibilities of the theater. The role of literature and periodicals in the intellectual development of children. The need for reading as a means of improving speech thinking. The reasons for the lag in the teaching of children of primary school age. Learning ability and level of mental development of the child. Age-related learning opportunities. memory weakness as one of the reasons for children's lag in learning. Symbolic coding and cognitive organization of material in order to improve memory. Psychological and pedagogical analysis of the reasons for the lag in the teaching of children of primary school age.

Regardless of how much effort and time is spent on ensuring that children are ready to go to school even in preschool age, almost all children face certain difficulties during the initial period of education. Therefore, there is a transitional period from preschool to school childhood, which can be called the period of adaptation of the child to school. For a general psychological description of this and subsequent periods in a child's life associated with radical changes in his psychology and behavior, it is useful to use the concepts of the social situation of development and internal position. The first of these concepts refers to the social conditions in which the child's mental development takes place. It also includes the idea of ​​a child's place in society, in the division of labor, the associated rights and obligations. The second concept characterizes the inner world of the child, the changes that must occur in him so that the child can adapt well to the new social situation and use it for his further psychological growth. These changes are usually associated with the formation of new relationships, a new meaning and purpose of life, affect the needs, interests and values, forms of behavior and attitudes towards people. In general, they are also associated with the beginning of serious changes in the personal and interpersonal plan in the psychology of the child.
There are relatively few such moments in a person's life when profound changes in the social situation of development take place. This is admission to school, graduation from it, obtaining a profession and the beginning of independent work, the formation of a family, transitions from one age to another: from 20-25 to 40-50 years, from 40-50 years to the age of 60 years, a step over limits of 70 years of age. It is clear that such radical changes in a person's life cannot do without internal and external problems, and this applies to any age. If such a turning point occurs in childhood, then the task of teachers and parents is to make it as easy as possible for the child, skillfully and effectively help him overcome the difficulties that have arisen.
What is the best way to do this? First of all, it is necessary to pay attention to the formation of full-fledged educational activity in first-graders. The main parameters, signs and methods for assessing the degree of development of this activity were described in the previous section of the textbook. Let's add something that concerns first-graders directly. Psychological and pedagogical analysis shows that they most often encounter two types of difficulties: performing the regime and entering into new relationships with adults. The most common negative occurrence at this time is occupational satiety, which quickly occurs in many children shortly after they start school. Outwardly, it usually manifests itself in the inability to maintain at the proper height the initial natural interest in school and in academic subjects.
To prevent this from happening, it is necessary to include additional incentives for learning activity. When applied to children of six or seven years of age, such incentives can be both moral and material. It is no coincidence that moral incentives are put in the first place here, since in stimulating children of primary school age to learn, they often turn out to be more effective than material ones. These include, for example, approval, praise, setting a child as an example to other children. It is important, carefully observing the behavior of the child, in time to notice what he reacts best to, and more often to turn to the forms of moral encouragement associated with this. In the early stages of schooling, it is desirable to exclude or minimize any penalties for poor performance. As for material rewards for successes, as practice shows, they are pedagogically and psychologically ineffective and act mainly situationally. They can be used, but they must not be abused. At the same time, a combination of material and moral methods of stimulating the child's learning is obligatory.
Initially, the teaching process in the lower grades of the school is based on familiarizing children with the main components of educational activity. These components, according to V.V. Davydov, are as follows: learning situations, learning actions, control and assessment. In detail and slowly, it is necessary to demonstrate to children a certain sequence of educational actions, highlighting among them those that should be performed in the subject, external speech and mental plans. At the same time, it is important to create favorable conditions for objective actions to acquire a mental form with their proper generalization, reduction and assimilation. If schoolchildren make mistakes when completing tasks, then this indicates either the incompleteness of the learning actions they have mastered, as well as actions related to control and assessment, or about poor practice of these actions. The child's ability to independently compare the results of the performed actions with the characteristics of the actions themselves indicates that the initial types of self-control in his learning activity have already been formed.
In educational situations, children master general methods of solving a certain class of problems, and the reproduction of these methods acts as the main goal of educational work. Having mastered them, children immediately fully apply the solutions found in the specific problems they encounter.
Actions aimed at assimilating a common pattern - a way to solve a problem - are appropriately motivated. The child is explained why it is necessary to assimilate this particular material.
The work on mastering general patterns of actions should precede the practice of their application in solving specific problems and stand out as a special one in the educational process. One of the main requirements of psychology is to organize initial education in such a way that the teaching of most topics and sections of the program occurs on the basis of educational situations that orient children towards mastering general methods of highlighting the properties of a certain concept or general patterns of solving problems of a certain class. Research shows that a number of significant shortcomings in mastering certain concepts and methods of solving problems are associated with the fact that during the formation of these concepts and methods of solving problems, children were not trained to perform all the necessary educational actions.
In the ability to transform concrete practical tasks in educational and theoretical, the highest level of development of the educational activity of schoolchildren is manifested. If at primary school age this skill is not properly formed, then subsequently neither diligence nor conscientiousness can become a psychological source of successful learning. The need for control and self-control in educational activities creates favorable conditions for the formation of younger students' ability to plan and perform actions in their minds, in the internal plan, as well as for their arbitrary regulation.
In the development of thinking and speech, children are greatly helped by spontaneous reasoning aloud. In one experiment, a group of 9-10 year old children were taught to reason aloud while completing an assignment. The control group did not get this experience. Children from the experimental group completed the intellectual task much faster and more efficiently than children from the control group. The need to reason out loud and justify one's decisions leads to the development of reflexivity as an important quality of the mind that allows a person to analyze and be aware of his judgments and actions. Voluntary attention develops, memory processes are transformed on an arbitrary and meaningful basis. At the same time, voluntary and involuntary types of memory interact and contribute to the development of each other.
The mental abilities and possibilities of assimilation of educational material by younger schoolchildren are quite high. With properly organized education, children perceive and learn more than what is traditionally given by an ordinary school. The first thing to teach a younger student when doing homework is to highlight the learning task. The child must clearly understand what method of completing the task he needs to master, for which this or that task is needed as an educational task, what it can teach.
Good results in teaching children of elementary grades are given by group forms of organizing classes, reminiscent of role-playing games, to which children are accustomed even in preschool age and in which they participate with pleasure. In the early stages of schooling, it is advisable to organize joint, group learning activities. However, this form of teaching, especially in the first months of schooling, requires careful preparation. One of the main tasks that needs to be solved when starting group training is to correctly assign roles, to establish an atmosphere of friendly interpersonal relationships based on mutual assistance in the study group.

Difficulties of an adaptive nature are easier and best overcome when, at the same time as the child enters school, a lot of work is done with him at home. The advantages of homework over schoolwork in terms of adaptation are that it is individual in nature and, to a greater extent than schoolwork, takes into account the characteristics of each child. Parents who study at home with children know these features more than strangers who occasionally meet with their children, in particular teachers. In addition, the child usually feels more relaxed at home and has more free time. This time at home can be better managed.
In home business and personal communication with the child, it is necessary to actively help him overcome the difficulties he faces at school. We already know, for example, that a significant proportion of first grade students; lags behind in learning due to the inability to isolate and understand the learning task. To teach a child this at home, one should systematically persistently and intelligibly explain to him that every school subject, every lesson and every study assignment is designed to teach him something useful. It is advisable to illustrate this idea with specific and understandable examples for the child from his own daily life. It is necessary to constantly ask the child questions aimed at finding out how he understands the learning task. These can be questions such as: "What can you learn while completing this task?", "What can you learn yourself by solving this problem?", "Why is it important to do this?" etc. Such questions will help the adult teaching the child to establish whether the learning task is clear for the child, and to the learner himself - to understand it better.
Questions that can be asked to a child when he already understands that everything that is taught at school teaches something good, and he himself has learned to determine what can be learned by completing a certain school assignment, work well to clarify the educational task. These are questions like: "What did you learn?", "What new did you learn in this lesson?" It is advisable to ask such questions at the end of the assignments.
Correct control and adequate self-esteem also cannot arise by themselves, they must be consciously formed. Many children entering the first grade are able to control their behavior, but they cannot keep the process and results of educational activity constantly in the field of attention. To form control and self-esteem, it is necessary to teach the child to compare the work he is doing with some sample, having previously taught him the techniques of such a comparison. The child's control and self-esteem needs to be formed not only in educational, but also in other types of activity available to him: in the game, in construction, in a variety of household chores and chores. Then it will be easier to generalize and transfer the methods of control to the exercise.
Tracking the correctness of the task should become a prerequisite for the performance of any educational activity and be carried out by the child independently. At the beginning of school, it is better not to use grades, but to evaluate the entire process of completing the educational task as a whole, without assessing the results, identifying and analyzing positive and negative sides work performed.
Particular attention at home should be paid to the development of the child's thinking and speech. "Teaching a child to write," wrote DB Elkonin, "we teach him not only spelling, spelling and grammar, we simultaneously educate his thinking, we teach him to discipline his own thought, teach him to use it arbitrarily, to control its course." ...
It is necessary to encourage the student to write more and, accordingly, stimulate writing. At the beginning of learning to write, these can be rather short letters to relatives and friends, summaries heard or read stories on their own, writing small essays on a given topic, etc. It is very important that the developing thinking of the child is simultaneously improved on several levels: in oral and written speech, in theoretical reasoning and practical deeds. The development of a theoretical plan of thinking is associated with the assimilation and consolidation of concepts introduced by school subjects, with the development of the ability to use them. The practical thinking plan is focused on solving a variety of practical problems, including the use of complex, coordinated, sensor-controlled hand movements.
A special role in the development of theoretical thinking of primary schoolchildren is played by classes in languages ​​and mathematics, since these sciences present the child with the basic systems of symbols that people use. In order for the assimilation of mathematical concepts by children from the very beginning of schooling to proceed normally, it is necessary to more often offer students to solve various practical problems using the corresponding knowledge and concepts. The main ones for a deeper understanding of mathematics as a science are the concepts of magnitude, set, number, operation. The concept of magnitude is usually assimilated as a result of comparing the measures of objects and the parameters of the observed phenomena. A measure is what allows quantitative comparisons of quantities. A set is a quantitative characteristic of an indefinite set of objects. A number is a quantitative expression of a certain size of objects. Basic mathematical operations are elementary operations with sets and are ultimately reducible to addition (connection) and subtraction (separation) of sets.
The procedures for measuring objects in everyday life, their comparison with each other in terms of quantitative characteristics, the symbolic mathematical expression of the results obtained allow the first grader to quickly master the initial mathematical concepts introduced at school. In the future, as they become familiar with the mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, they can also be used by children to solve practical problems related to elementary calculations: determining the length, width, area, volume of something and performing operations with the corresponding quantities.
The industry produces a lot of toys and a variety of educational games for children, which involve the use of elementary mathematical concepts and operations. Many of them are intended for children of primary school age and can be used by adults for didactic purposes. They can be used to develop a child's thinking. It is important, however, that these games are neither too easy nor too difficult for the children.
Mathematical tasks and exercises usually arouse direct interest in many younger schoolchildren, especially when their implementation is associated with solving practical problems that satisfy the actual interests and needs of the child. It is more difficult to form and maintain such an interest in the knowledge and assimilation of the language as a sign system. In this regard, didactic games with words on the topics "What is it called?", "How to say the same thing, but in other words?", "How are these words or names of objects different?"
The practical thinking of children is improved and develops well also through representations and imaginative thinking, especially in activities such as drawing, modeling, designing, making crafts, assembling and disassembling various structures. They also need to be used as often as possible in the homework of younger students.

Play in the forms in which it existed in preschool childhood begins to lose its developmental significance at primary school age and is gradually replaced by learning and work, the essence of which is that these types of activities, in contrast to games that are simply enjoyable, have a certain purpose. And the games themselves at this age become new. Of great interest for younger schoolchildren are such games, which adults also enjoy playing. These are games that make you think, providing a person with the opportunity to test and develop his abilities, including him in competition with other people. Children's participation in such games promotes their self-affirmation, develops persistence, a desire for success, and other useful motivational qualities that children may need in their future adult life. In such games, thinking is improved, including actions of planning, forecasting, weighing the chances of success, choosing alternatives, etc. A variety of sports games are a new type of games that are beginning to attract increased attention of children at primary school age. In addition to solving problems for the development of practical thinking, these games strengthen the health of children, develop courage, perseverance, and other useful qualities.
Each of the four main types of activity characteristic of a child of primary school age: learning, communication, play and work - performs specific functions in his development. Learning contributes to the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities. Communication improves the exchange of information, improves the communicative structure of intelligence, teaches how to perceive, understand and evaluate children correctly. The game improves substantive activity, logic and methods of thinking, forms and develops the skills and abilities of business interaction with people. Labor improves hand movements, strengthens practical, spatial and imaginative thinking. Without the child's active participation in any of these types of activity, his mental development would be one-sided and incomplete.
The lack of participation in certain developmental activities is manifested, in particular, in the fact that many first-graders speak well, can communicate, but can do little with their own hands. It also happens the other way around: often there are children who play different games better than others, win more often, but are relatively weak in reasoning and design activities, as well as in the possession of interpersonal skills and communication.
Labor plays an especially important positive role in the intellectual development of younger schoolchildren, which is a relatively new type of activity for them. Labor improves the practical intelligence needed for the most different types future creative professional activity. It should be varied and interesting enough for children. It is advisable to make any homework or school assignment interesting and creative enough for the child, giving him the opportunity to think and make independent decisions. The child's proactive and creative approach to work should be encouraged in work, and not only the work performed by him and its specific result.

As additional to the already mentioned sources of mental development of primary schoolchildren, especially in the third and fourth grades of school, there are various types of art, the media: print, television, radio. They broaden and deepen the child's horizons, improve his knowledge, increase the level of erudition and general culture. Acquaintance with visual arts, including classical and modern, deepens the intellectual and emotional perception of the world. Thanks to this, the child gets rid of the egocentric point of view, begins to understand that, in addition to his own perception of the world, his other vision, another perspective different from his own, can exist. All this can then be transferred to the area of ​​personal and business communication with people, where the ability to take the point of view of another person, to understand and accept it is even more important than in the knowledge of the world of art. Life experience convinces that many of those people who reveal their lack of such ability, at the same time, show a lack of understanding and rejection of contemporary art and the new in general.
The art of cinema, television expands the framework of the perception of the world, enrich its vision due to the fact that thanks to the creative work of screenwriters, directors and performers, the most interesting things that exist in life, the most valuable for the development of human intelligence and culture, get on the screens. It is not quite right to act those educators and parents who limit the film and television viewing of children of primary school age only to programs specially designed for them, which for the most part are rather naive and do little for the development of the child. "Adult" programs tend to develop children better by specifically influencing their thoughts and feelings. They raise questions in children, forcing them to think, expand their knowledge, improve their intellect. It is important that an adult is next to the child while watching such programs, ready to give the necessary explanation, comment on what he has seen.
Theater has a very beneficial effect on the development of children of primary school age. Its perception by a child of primary school age is more complex than film or television.
In the theater, at the same time, you have to follow what is happening on the stage, listen and understand the actors' speech, which is not always clearly sounding, and distribute and switch attention. It is necessary to prepare the child for the perception of the theater in advance, explaining to him the content of the performance, the meaning of the play and much more, which makes the theatrical show a psychologically developing form of art for the viewer.
The importance of theater for the development of children lies, in particular, in the fact that it teaches them to perceive and evaluate people in real life situations.
Children who read a lot show a greater intelligence, a higher level of intelligence. However, light, entertaining reading, publications that often attract children only with their pictures and simple, unpretentious plots, do little for mental development. It is important from the first grades of school to instill in children an interest in serious, "adult" literature, to teach how to apply for the necessary information to various kinds of reference books. Reading for at least a few minutes a day should become a must for a child, his need, starting from about the second grade of school.
A specific feature of children of primary school age is that at this age the first signs of children's lag in learning are usually found, and in these years the lag can still be successfully eliminated. The main reasons for lagging are usually associated with the learning ability and mental development of the child. Before discussing these reasons, it is important to establish what meaning psychologists put in the associated acceptances.
The learning ability of children, according to N.S. Leites, differs from the level of mental development in a number of the following ways50. With age, during a person's life, the level of mental development usually rises, and the learning ability decreases. The learning ability of a child of primary school age, as a rule, is higher than that of a teenager, boy or adult, although the level of mental development of the latter is higher. In addition, with age, there can be qualitative changes in the mental capabilities of a person associated with the loss of some of the psychological advantages of the previous age periods of life. The highest level of learning is usually observed in preschool and primary school childhood, so it is practically very important to make the fullest possible use of the learning ability of children of these ages.
Learning ability in different subjects at every age has features that are associated with the individual originality of the cognitive processes and the personality of the student. This should be taken into account when preparing and organizing educational activities. A common reason for the low learning ability of children of primary school age is their weak memory, poor memorization of the material. A significant negative role in the lagging behind the mnemonic activity of younger schoolchildren, according to A.A. Smirnov, is played by the inability to apply methods of effective meaningful memorization51. The formation of such methods should be carried out even in preschool age, and in the first two grades of school, special attention should be paid to them, making every effort to ensure that they are formed in children as soon as possible. The success of educational activities and the general level of mental development of the child depend on the knowledge of these techniques and the successful mastery of them.
It was found that there is a certain relationship between the spelling mistakes made by students in grades III-IV and their operative memory; such errors are more common among students with poorly developed RAM. On this basis, it was concluded that in order to improve the spelling literacy of students, it is necessary to develop their working memory with the help of special exercises in language lessons.
An important condition that determines the effectiveness of memorization is the features of internal cognitive structures. Memorization will be stimulated if the student not only reads the text, but at the same time determines its meaning and meaning, pays attention to logical relationships, i.e. seeks to understand this text.
Even at the early stages of studying the material, it is desirable to move from passive perception to active reproduction. This allows the student to check what he has learned from the text. Such a test has a beneficial effect on the memorization process for two reasons: first, it activates the student's attention, revealing what he already knows; secondly, the student sees that his efforts are supported by success, and this additionally stimulates him to memorize.
Memorization while memorizing by heart also improves if the student is able to combine visual-figurative and verbal-conceptual operations with each other. But the most important thing is to actively include in memorizing not just understanding, but also comprehension of the material, its cognitive processing. The more intellectual operations are involved in the memorization process (sign coding, clarification of intra-textual logical connections, categorical ordering and cognitive transformations), the better the memory.
Failure of schoolchildren in elementary grades can be caused by other reasons. An analysis of the play and constructive activities of children can provide valuable information about them. When establishing the reasons for academic failure, it is important to determine the zone of the child's proximal (potential) development, i.e. what he is able to understand and assimilate himself with minimal help from an adult, as well as how the child relates to the tasks offered to him.

Topics and questions for discussion at seminars

Topic 1. Organization of teaching children in primary school
1. Objective and subjective difficulties that younger students face at the beginning of their education.
2. Ways to overcome psychological difficulties of an adaptive nature.
3. Formation of educational activities among younger students.
4. Optimal forms of organizing classes with students in the initial period of their education at school.
Topic 2. Teaching younger students at home
1. The importance of home schoolwork for the development of children.
2. Formation of educational activities in younger schoolchildren at home. _ ,. h 3. Development of children's thinking through the improvement of written language.
4. Development of the child's theoretical and practical thinking through do-it-yourself activities and didactic games.
5. Development of visual-figurative thinking in the process of engaging in artistic and technical creativity.
Topic 3. Game and work activities of primary schoolchildren
1. New types of games appearing in children at primary school age.
2. 2. The ratio of leading activities in primary school age.
3. The role of labor in the intellectual development of a child of primary school age.
4. Organization and stimulation of child labor at school and at home.
Topic 4. Sources of mental development of children of primary school age and the reasons for their academic failure
1. Developing possibilities of the fine arts.
2. The role of cinema and television in the mental development of primary school children.
3. Theater as a means of moral and mental development of primary schoolchildren.
4. The developing role of fiction.
5. The reasons for the lag in the teaching of children of primary school age, ways and means of their elimination.

Topics for essays

1. Psychological requirements for the methodology of organizing a lesson in primary school.
3. Educational games for younger students.

1. A system of exercises aimed at the development of educational activities in younger students.
2. The complex organization and combination of various types of activities: games, studies, communication and work - in younger students.
4. Psychological analysis of the reasons for the failure of children of primary school age.

Literature

I
Antonova G.P., Avtonova I.P. Learnability and suggestibility of primary school students // Questions of psychology. - 1991. - No. 4 - S. 42-50.
Davydov V.V. Developmental learning problems. - M., 1986. (Educational activity at primary school age: 132-162.)
Kalmykova Z.I. Productive thinking as the foundation of learning. - M., 1981. (Productive thinking of fourth-graders: 83-89. Productive thinking of second-graders: 89-99. Training and development of productive thinking in second-grade students: 147-149. Teaching and development of productive thinking in fourth-grade students: 149-155 .)
Leites N.S. Intelligence and age. - M., 1971. (Junior school age: 133-162.)
Matyukhina M.V. Motivation for teaching younger students. - M., 1984. (The structure of motivation for teaching younger schoolchildren: 10-42. Motivation for learning and mental development of younger schoolchildren: 67-80. Motivation and productivity of educational activity of younger schoolchildren: 80-93. Psychological conditions for the formation of motivation for learning in younger schoolchildren: 93 -136.)
Mukhina B.C. A Six-Year-Old Child in School: A Book for a Primary School Teacher. - M., 1986. (Beginning of teaching six-year-old children: 33-45. Teaching at six years of age: 78-104.)
Obukhova L.F. Jean Piaget's concept: pros and cons. - M., 1981. (Development of thinking in primary school age: 88-103.)
Rutter M. Help to Difficult Children. - M., 1987. (Junior school age: 113-122.)
Elkonin D.B. The psychology of teaching a younger student. - M., 1974. (The initial period of schooling: 27-40. Education and development in primary school age: 55-64.)
II
Amonashvili Sh.A. Education. Grade. Mark. - M., 1980., (Teaching children in the first grade without marks: 7-20.)
Developmental and educational psychology / Ed. M.V. Ga-meso and others - M., 1984. (Management of the teaching of younger students: 115-121. Labor activity of younger students: 121-126.)
Order. The development of theoretical thinking in younger students. - M., 1984. (Development of thinking in younger students: 73-120. Formation of thinking in younger students in the educational process: 120-133.)
Kravtsov G.G., Kravtsova E.E. Six-year-old child: psychological readiness for school. - M., 1977. (The problem of teaching six-year-olds: 3-13. Readiness for school: 37-59.)
The world of childhood: junior schoolboy. - M., 1988. (Six-year student: 35-38.)
Features of the mental development of children 6 - 7 years of age. - M., 1988. (Development of motives for learning in children 6-7 years old: 36-45. Formation of educational activity in children 6-7 years old: 77-94. Psychological and pedagogical work with children-six years old: 111-128.)
Psychological and pedagogical problems of teaching and upbringing of six-year-old children (round table) // Questions of psychology. - 1984. - No. 4. - S. 30-55.
Psychological and pedagogical problems of teaching and upbringing of six-year-old children (round table) // Questions of psychology. - 1984. - No. 5. - S. 49-86.
Ulynkova U. V. Research of psychological readiness of six-year-old children for school // Questions of psychology. - 1983. - No. 4. - S. 62-69.
III
Amonashvili Sh.A. To school - from the age of six. - M., 1986. (Teaching children 6 years of age: 61-131.)
Vinogradova M.D., Pervin I.B. Collective cognitive activity and education of schoolchildren. From work experience. - M., 1977. (Students in collective cognitive activity: 14-40.)
Yu.N. Karandashev Development of representations in children: Textbook, - Minsk, 1987. (Development of representations in children at primary school age: 60-73.)
B.B. Kossov Psychomotor development of younger students: methodological developments... - M., 1989 .-- 109 p.

Formation of theoretical intelligence. The main directions of the development of theoretical thinking in middle and high school. Formation of verbal thinking. Formation of a system of scientific concepts and an internal plan of action. Self-determination of scientific concepts by senior students. Mental search for solutions to problems. Mental planning and checking the course of the decision as a means of developing an internal plan of action. Practical advice on the accelerated development of theoretical intelligence in middle and high school students. Classes in rhetoric as a means of developing verbal thinking. The need to comprehensively improve the theoretical intelligence of senior students in all the main areas of its development.
Improving practical thinking. Development of the basic elements of practical intelligence. Entrepreneurship, economy, prudence, the ability to quickly and effectively solve emerging practical problems are the main qualities of practical thinking. The need to develop practical thinking in students at school and at home. The main directions, means and methods for the development of practical intelligence.
Professionalization of labor skills. Adolescence and early adolescence as sensitive periods of the formation of professionally oriented skills and abilities. Formation of the need for independent, productive, creative work. The problem of leading activities in adolescence and early adolescence. The need to reorient pedagogical and psychological influences, taking into account the socio-economic state of society.
Development of general and special abilities. General provisions on the development of abilities in children in adolescence and early adolescence. The inclinations, their awareness and study in adolescents using various psychodiagnostic methods. Organization of training with additional teaching load for high school students, the need to gradually bring this load closer to the daily workload of adults' intellectual activity. The problem of adequate motivation for professionally oriented teaching of adolescents and young men. Practical solutions to this problem.

In adolescence and early adolescence, the formation of cognitive processes, and above all thinking, is completed. During these years, thought finally merges with the word, as a result of which inner speech is formed as the main means of organizing thinking and regulating other cognitive processes. Intellect in its highest manifestations becomes speech, and speech becomes intelligent. Full-fledged theoretical thinking arises. Along with this, there is an active process of the formation of scientific concepts containing the foundations of a person's scientific worldview within the framework of the sciences that are studied at school. Mental actions and operations with concepts, based on the logic of reasoning and distinguishing verbal-logical, abstract thinking from visual-effective and visual-figurative, acquire final forms. Is it possible to speed up all these processes, and if so, how to do it?
It seems that from the point of view of the psychological and pedagogical development possibilities that middle and senior schoolchildren have, from the standpoint of improving teaching and learning, this question should be answered in the affirmative. The intellectual development of children can be accelerated in three areas: the conceptual structure of thinking, speech intelligence and an internal plan of action. The development of thinking in the senior grades of school can be facilitated by this type of activity, which, unfortunately, is still poorly represented in general education schools, as rhetoric, understood as the ability to plan, compose and deliver public speeches, conduct a discussion, and skillfully answer questions. Different forms of written expression of thought, used not only in language and literature classes (in the form of traditional presentation or essay), but also in other school subjects, can be of great benefit. They may well be used in the classroom in history, geography, biology, a foreign language, and a number of other disciplines as a means of developing verbal thinking, and not just as a way to test students' knowledge in the classroom. In this case, it is important to evaluate not only the content, but also the form of presentation of the material.
Accelerated education of scientific concepts can be achieved in the classroom of special subjects, where the corresponding concepts are introduced and studied. When presenting to the student any concept, including a scientific one, it is important to pay attention to the following points:
a) almost every concept, including scientific, has several meanings;
b) ordinary words from everyday language, which is also used to define scientific concepts, are polysemantic and not accurate enough to determine the scope and content of a scientific concept. Therefore, any definitions of concepts through the words of everyday language can only be approximate;
c) the noted properties admit, as a completely normal phenomenon, the existence different definitions the same concepts that do not completely coincide with each other, and this applies even to the most exact sciences, such as mathematics and physics.
A scientist using the appropriate concepts is usually clear about what is being discussed, and therefore he does not always care that the definitions of all scientific concepts without exception are the same;
d) for one and the same person as he develops, as well as for science and the scientists who represent it, as they penetrate into the essence of the studied phenomena, the volume and content of concepts naturally change. When pronouncing the same words over a significant period of time, we usually put in them slightly different meanings that change over time.
It follows from this that in the middle and senior grades of school, students should not mechanically teach and repeat the frozen definitions of scientific concepts. Rather, it is necessary to ensure that the students themselves find and give definitions of these concepts. This will undoubtedly accelerate the development of the conceptual structure of thinking in high school students.
The formation of an internal plan of action can be helped by special exercises aimed at ensuring that the same actions are performed as often as possible not with real, but with imaginary objects, i.e. in the mind. For example, in mathematics classes, students should be encouraged to count more not on paper or with the help of a calculating machine, but to themselves, to find and clearly formulate a principle and sequential steps in solving a certain problem before practically starting to implement the solution found. It is necessary to adhere to the rule: until the decision is fully thought out in the mind, until the plan of the actions included in it is drawn up and until it is verified for consistency, you should not proceed to the practical implementation of the solution. These principles and rules can be used in the classroom with all, without exception, school subjects, then the internal plan of action will be formed faster among students.
The three presented main directions of the accelerated development of theoretical intelligence, of course, do not exist independently of each other, and it is impossible to form each of them separately without connection with the others. The development of verbal thinking in one way or another affects the development of concepts and an internal plan of action. Changes in the internal plan of action are associated with the development of internal speech, have a positive effect on verbal thinking and the formation of concepts. Etc. Therefore, all work on the intellectual development of adolescents and young men must be carried out in a comprehensive manner, selecting exercises and calculating the proposed tasks in such a way that they develop intelligence in all its most important areas.

Practical intelligence, in addition to the ability to solve practical problems associated with this name, has other attributes: common sense, ingenuity, "golden hands", intuition. For a long time, the development of these aspects of the child's intellect was relatively neglected by the school or reduced mainly to the acquisition by students of elementary labor skills and abilities related to low-skilled work. In the conditions of the transition to market relations and the independent economic activity of people, the importance of practical intelligence especially increases, since each person now needs to lead a calculated and thoughtful way of life.
The structure of practical intelligence includes the following qualities of the mind: enterprise, economy, prudence, the ability to quickly and efficiently solve emerging problems. Entrepreneurship is manifested in the fact that in a difficult life situation a person is able to find several solutions to the problem that has arisen, and most importantly, in the fact that no matter what problem arises in front of him, he is always ready and able to find its optimal solution in practical terms. An enterprising person can find a way out of any situation.
Frugality as a quality of the practical mind consists in the fact that a person possessing this quality is able to find such a way of action, which in the current situation will lead to the desired result with the lowest costs and expenses.
Prudence manifests itself in the ability to look far ahead, anticipating the consequences of certain decisions and actions, to accurately determine their result and assess what it may cost.
Finally, the ability to quickly solve the assigned tasks is a dynamic characteristic of practical intelligence, which manifests itself in the amount of time that passes from the moment a task arises to its practical solution.
Practical thinking can be considered developed if it possesses all these properties. It can and should be formed in students from the first grades, and not only at school, but also at home. Let's outline the main directions of development of the listed properties of practical intelligence in middle and senior school students.
Entrepreneurship in children can be successfully developed at school. Student self-government, as well as student participation in different types socially useful commercial labor. It is important to make sure that schoolchildren in these matters do not act as executors of the will of teachers or other adults, but they themselves determine what and how to do, they themselves enter into business relations, if required. More independence must be given to adolescents and young men in household chores, while observing the above condition: the child must do the work independently, according to his own design and understanding.
It is easier to form frugality in children than other qualities of a practical mind, but this must be done systematically, encouraging children at school and at home to independently calculate material costs for matters of interest to them. It is also advisable to teach adolescents and young men the simplest methods of conducting such calculations. This presupposes the formulation and solution of tasks for the preparation of estimates of expenses and income, summing up the results of economic activity. It is also desirable to involve children in this at school and at home. It is especially necessary to do this when it comes on spending by children of their own earned money.
It is more difficult to develop the ability to quickly and quickly solve emerging practical problems. It depends on the temperament of the child (some children think, think faster than others), on the already acquired life experience. It is probably impossible to teach all children to think and act equally quickly, but everyone can be taught to be guided in practical matters by a general rule: as soon as a problem has arisen, it is necessary to immediately, without delay, begin to solve it.

In adolescence and adolescence, children acquire work skills and skills on which their professional work in the future depends. Experience shows that if at this age you do not form the ability to do something serious with your hands and head, then you can hardly count on the development of good professional skills in children. For example, adolescents and young men who in childhood did not know how to handle technology, use locksmith tools, do something with their own hands, rarely become capable and talented design engineers. Those of them who in the senior grades of school did not show mathematical, linguistic, artistic and creative abilities, almost never, having become adults, do not turn into outstanding mathematicians, philologists, and artists.
The future professional success of children is to a large extent determined by labor skills and abilities, which are actively formed during school years.
The development of any professional skills and abilities depends, in turn, on the general level of intelligence formation, therefore, at the beginning of life, it is important to take care of it. Without a sufficiently high level of general intellectual development, any significant success in any kind of activity is inconceivable, therefore, when preparing students for a future profession, first of all, it is necessary to pay attention to the development of their mental abilities.
No less important are special abilities, manifested in labor skills, which are the basis for many different types of professional activity. For example, practically all types of engineering work, as such relatively elementary special skills and abilities, presuppose the ability to draw up and read drawings, work with equipment and tools. This should be specially taught to adolescents at school and at home if they show interest in the relevant types of professional work.
In order to stimulate the development of appropriate skills and abilities in adolescents and young men, they should often be asked for help in performing certain locksmiths, carpentry, electrical and other work, and praised for their successes, especially in front of their peers.
The need for communication is also significant for children of this age, but it is not at all dominant in them, let alone leading. The statement about the leading role of communication at this age seems to be an attempt to canonize the existing practice of unsatisfactory labor education and training of children of this age, when at school they were trained in labor lessons for uninteresting, routine professions, mainly associated with not requiring intellectual effort and not prestigious labor. Due to this circumstance, many adolescents and older schoolchildren, who were not engaged in professionally interesting activities at school and at home, had no choice but to spend time idly communicating with each other. The opinion about the leading role of communication at this age does not correlate well with the facts according to which significant professional success in life is achieved most often by those people who, in adolescence and early adolescence, spent the least time on communication and were more engaged in something related to their future professional activities.
The overwhelming part of the time free from compulsory school hours for adolescents and high school students should be filled not with communication with each other, but with independent learning - the acquisition of knowledge in addition to the standard school curriculum - and work, and the employment of children in these years should be no less than that of adults. Experience shows that adolescents and young men take great pleasure in doing things where they can prove themselves with better side... Adolescence and early adolescence can be considered sensitive for the formation of professionally oriented knowledge, skills and abilities. At no other age do they develop with such ease and speed and are not fixed in memory for such a long time as in these school years.
For their development, adolescents and adolescents need interesting joint professional activities both with adults and with peers. They can and should become serious helpers for parents in household chores, in business, household and other concerns.
Starting from the sixth to seventh grades of the school, the educational and work load on students should gradually increase due to the introduction of additional specialized programs into education aimed at developing the general and special inclinations and abilities of children. In the senior grades of school, this load can already be brought to the level of the average working day of an adult.

Adolescence and early adolescence is a time of professional self-determination. It is very important precisely in these years to finally identify and, as far as possible, develop those abilities on the basis of which the young man could reasonably and correctly make his choice of profession. The general provisions underlying the development of abilities in these years are as follows.
1. During the preceding years of life, the child's body has become physically stronger and matured. From this, taking into account the child's long experience of learning and participation in various activities, it follows that the inclinations he has in one way or another could already manifest, and his entire future fate will mainly depend on their effective use.
2. Awareness of existing inclinations and abilities presupposes their special research. Each child must undergo such an examination no later than the sixth or seventh grade of school.
3. The use of existing inclinations and abilities that have already shown themselves means the need for their development in the process of specially organized training. Beginning with secondary school, along with general education, special education for children should be organized, professionally orienting them in accordance with the existing inclinations and abilities to choose the type and type of occupation, and on a voluntary basis.
This does not mean that it is necessary to reduce or reduce the number of hours devoted to the study of general education subjects. Without them, general intellectual abilities will not develop properly as one of the foundations of any future professional work... This only means that the professionalization of training with its simultaneous differentiation according to abilities should be introduced in parallel and in addition to the general educational program.

Topics in questions for discussion at seminars

Topic 1. Formation of theoretical intelligence
1. The main directions of the development of theoretical thinking of students in middle and high school.
2. Accelerated development of verbal thinking.
3. Improving the concept formation process.
4. Formation of an internal action plan.
5. The need for the comprehensive development of all aspects of the intelligence of senior students.
Topic 2. Improving practical thinking
1. Types of practical thinking that need to be developed in high school students.
2. Ways of forming entrepreneurship in adolescents.
3. Means for the development of frugality and prudence in senior school age.
4. Teaching the ability to quickly and efficiently solve practical problems.
Topic 3. Professionalization of labor skills
1. Adolescence and early adolescence as sensitive periods for the development of basic professional skills.
2. The role and place of communication in the development of children of middle and senior school age.
3. Ways to improve working skills in adolescents.
Topic 4. Development of general and special abilities
1. Principles for the development of general and special abilities in adolescence and early adolescence.
2. Motivation of professionally oriented teaching of high school students.
3. The problem of adequate academic workload of senior schoolchildren.

Topics for essays

1. The main directions of the intellectual development of schoolchildren in middle and senior grades.
2. Types and features of practical thinking of high school students.
3. Formation of general and special, professionally oriented abilities in high school students.

Topics for independent research work

1. Psychological and pedagogical means of accelerated intellectual development of high school students.
2. Ways of forming practical thinking in high school students.
3. Psychological and pedagogical foundations of the organization of work of adolescents and young men.
5. Psychological foundations of vocational guidance for high school students.

Literature

I
Zakharova A.V. Psychology of teaching high school students. - M., 1976. (Teaching senior pupils: 16-30, 44-54.)
Kalmykova Z.I. Productive thinking as the foundation of learning. - M, 1981. (Specificity of solving the problem by high school students: 140-144.)
The world of childhood: teenager. - M., 1989. (Teenager in teaching: 173-224.)
Michelle Cle. Psychology of a teenager. Psychosexual development. - M., 1991. (Cognitive development (formal thinking, intellectual abilities): 86-99)
Rutter M. Help to Difficult Children. - M;, 1987. (Adolescence: 122-133.)
Leites N.S. Intelligence and age. - M., 1971. (Average school age: 162-182. Senior school age: 182-220.)
A.K. Markova Psychology of adolescent learning. - M., 1975. (The adolescent's attitude to school and learning: 3-16. Reserves of cognitive abilities in the middle school age: 16-26.)
Obukhova L.F. Jean Piaget's concept: pros and cons. - M., 1981. (Development of thinking in adolescence: 104-109.)
Development of logical memory in children. - M., 1976. (Teaching memorization of schoolchildren: 72-186.)

The goals of education. The dependence of the goals of education on the state and prospects of the development of society. The goals of education, reflecting culture and civilization: spirituality, morality, freedom and responsibility. Specific goals of upbringing, determined by the current moment in the development of society: initiative, enterprise, ambition, striving to achieve success in life, including economic.
Means and methods of education. Means of education as methods of psychological influence aimed at changing the personality and behavior of a person. Classification of educational methods: direct and indirect, conscious and unconscious, emotional and behavioral. Features, advantages and disadvantages of each of the methods of education. The need for a comprehensive use of educational tools. The special educational value of various methods of psychotherapeutic influence, its types and possibilities.
Educational institutions. The main social institutions and their educational opportunities. Education at school. Education through the media: print, radio, television. Education by art. Opportunities, advantages and disadvantages of each social institution of education. Reference social group as a source of educational influences.
Education theory. The formation and development of a person as a person is the main problem of the psychological theory of education. General psychology, social Psychology, the psychology of the developmental development of children are the main psychological disciplines in the mainstream of which the issues of education are raised and resolved. Biogenic theory of education: arguments for and against. Sociogenic theory of education, its strengths and weaknesses. Options for a compromise approach. Problems of character education, motives, personality traits and forms of behavior.

Upbringing is the second after learning side of a child's socialization, his acquisition of human life experience. Unlike education, where the focus is on the formation of a person's cognitive processes, his abilities, his acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, education is aimed at the formation of a person as a person, his relationship to the world, society, people. Parenting is not a separate process, but a side of learning that has much in common and is different from what was discussed in the previous section of the textbook. General for training and upbringing are the basic mechanisms of a person's acquisition of social experience, and specific are the results of learning. With regard to upbringing, they are the properties and qualities of the individual, the forms of her social behavior, and in relation to training - knowledge, abilities and skills.
Education, its scientific substantiation, in addition to psychology, are engaged in philosophy, sociology and pedagogy. But without psychology, the main problems of upbringing cannot be not only solved, but even correctly posed, since their understanding depends on knowledge of the psychology of personality, human relationships, and the psychology of various social communities. When proposing one or another, suitable for all children or special, suitable mainly for children of a certain age, recommendations, we will rely on data borrowed from both general psychology and from the psychology of developmental development.
Education begins with defining its goals. The main task of upbringing is the formation and development of a child as a person who possesses those useful qualities that she needs for life in society. The goals of upbringing are not established once and for all and are not constant in any society. The system of social structure and social relations are changing - the goals of upbringing are also changing. Each time they are set in the form of requirements that new trends in the development of society impose on the person's personality. In more or less stable periods of social development, the goals of education become relatively stable. During significant socio-economic transformations, they become uncertain. This textbook is being written when our society is not yet stable, therefore now it is not possible to define the goals of upbringing unambiguously and accurately for a long time ahead.
But if a society has reached a certain level of civilization and culture, if it seeks to preserve and enhance it, then no matter what radical turns occur in its history, it will have to accept and continue the best that was in the past, if society wants to remain in the ranks of civilized countries. The category of enduring values ​​that do not have historical and state boundaries include universal human moral values. They, in the first place, determine the goals of upbringing at all stages of social history. Such goals are associated with the concepts of good and evil, decency, humanity and love of nature. It is also spirituality, freedom, responsibility of the individual for what happens to her and around her, decency, modesty, humanity, disinterestedness, kindness.

1.1 Features of teaching younger students

The boundaries of primary school age, which coincide with the period of study in primary school, are currently set from 6-7 to 9-10 years old. During this period, the further physical and psychophysiological development of the child takes place, providing the opportunity for systematic education at school. First of all, the work of the brain and nervous system is being improved. According to physiologists, by the age of 7, the cerebral cortex is already in the characteristics of behavior, organization of activity and the emotional sphere characteristic of children of this age: younger students are easily distracted, unable to concentrate for a long time, excitable, emotional. In primary school age, there is an uneven psychophysiological development in different children. Differences in the development rates of boys and girls also persist: girls continue to outpace boys. Pointing to this, some authors come to the conclusion that in fact in the lower grades "children of different ages sit at the same desk: on average, boys are a year and a half younger than girls, although this difference is not in the calendar age."

The beginning of schooling leads to a radical change in the social situation of the child's development. He becomes a "public" subject and now has socially significant responsibilities, the implementation of which receives a public assessment.

Educational activity becomes the leading activity in primary school age. It determines the most important changes in the development of the psyche of children at a given age stage. Within the framework of educational activity, psychological neoplasms are formed that characterize the most significant achievements in the development of primary schoolchildren and are the foundation that ensures development at the next age stage.

According to L.S. Vygotsky, the specificity of primary school age is that the goals of activity are set for children mainly by adults. Teachers and parents determine what the child can and cannot do, what tasks to perform, what rules to obey. Even among those schoolchildren who willingly undertake to fulfill the assignment of an adult, there are quite frequent cases when children do not cope with the tasks, because they did not master its essence, quickly lost their initial interest in the task, or simply forgot to complete it on time. These difficulties can be avoided if, when giving the children any assignment, you follow certain rules.

Younger school age is the most responsible stage of school childhood. The high sensitivity of this age period determines the great potential for the versatile development of the child. The main achievements of this age are due to the leading nature of educational activity and are largely decisive for the subsequent years of study: by the end of primary school age, the child must want to learn, be able to learn and believe in himself.

Each age stage is characterized by a special position of the child in the system of relations adopted in a given society. In accordance with this, the life of children of different ages is filled with specific content: special relationships with people around them and a special activity leading for this stage of development. Let us recall that L.S. Vygotsky identified the following types of leading activities:

· Infants - direct emotional communication.

· Early childhood is a manipulative activity.

· Preschoolers - play activities.

· Younger pupils - educational activities.

· Adolescents are socially cognizable and socially approved activities.

· Senior pupils - educational and professional activity.

Features of the arbitrary memory of younger schoolchildren. The intention to memorize this or that material does not yet determine the content of the mnemonic problem to be solved by the subject. To do this, he must highlight in the text a specific subject of memorization, which is a special task. Some schoolchildren single out the cognitive content of the text (about 20% of schoolchildren) as such a goal of memorization, others its plot (23%), and still others do not single out a certain subject of memorization at all. Thus, the task is transformed into different mnemonic tasks, which can be explained by differences in learning motivation and the level of formation of goal-setting mechanisms.

The thinking of children of primary school age is significantly different from that of preschoolers. So if a preschooler's thinking is characterized by such a quality as involuntary, little controllability both in the formulation of a mental task and in its solution, they often and more easily think about what is more interesting to them, what fascinates them. That is the younger schoolchildren as a result of schooling, when it is necessary to regularly complete assignments without fail, learn to control their thinking, think when necessary.

In many ways, the formation of such arbitrary, controlled thinking is facilitated by the teacher's instructions in the lesson, prompting children to think. When communicating in primary school, children develop conscious critical thinking. This is due to the fact that in the classroom ways of solving problems are discussed, various solutions are considered. The teacher constantly requires students to justify, tell, prove the correctness of their judgment, requires children to solve problems on their own.

Thus, the presence of one or another type of thinking in a child can be judged by how he solves the tasks corresponding to this type. If a child successfully solves easy tasks designed to apply one or another type of thinking, but finds it difficult to solve more complex ones, then in this case it is considered that he has a second level of development in the corresponding type of thinking.

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