1. Psychology in the system of sciences. The structure of modern psychology

- Anthropology (special science of man as a special biological species).

3 main sections:

Human morphology (study of individual variability of the physical type, age stages - from the early stages of embryonic development to inclusive old age, sexual dimorphism, changes in the physical development of a person under the influence of various conditions of life and activity),

The doctrine of anthropogenesis (studying the origin and development of man), consisting of primatology, evolutionary human anatomy and paleoanthropology (studying fossil forms of man) and racial studies

- Zoopsychology (studying animals, many mechanisms of human behavior and patterns of their mental development became clear)

The scientific knowledge of man originates in natural philosophy, natural science and medicine.

- Human anatomy and physiology , biophysics and biochemistry, psychophysiology (studies the human psyche), neuropsychology (studies the human nervous activity)

- Medicine

- Genetics (studies the hereditary mechanisms of the psyche and behavior, their dependence on the genotype)

-Archeology

- Paleolinguistics, explores the origin of the language, its sound means (articulate speech is one of the main differences between humans and animals)

- Paleosociology (social science), studies the formation of human society, and the history of primitive culture

- Ontogenesis Sciences (study of a specific person, the process of development of an individual organism, the gender, age, constitutional and neurodynamic characteristics of a person are studied)

- Sciences about the personality and its life path within the framework of which the motives of human activity, his worldview and value orientations, relations with the outside world are studied

Connection with history, economics, sociology, ethnography

The following branches of psychology will be distinguished in the structure of modern psychology:

- Labor psychology - studies the psychological characteristics of human labor

- Pedagogical psychology - studies the psychological laws of human education and upbringing, it includes: the psychology of education, upbringing, teacher psychology, psychology of water resources management

- Medical psychology - studies the psychological aspects of the doctor’s activities and patient behavior. Divided into: neuropsychology, psychopharmacology, psychotherapy, psychohygiene

- Legal psychology - studies psychological issues related to the implementation of the legal system.

- Military psychology - explores human behavior in war conditions, the relationship of the boss with a subordinate

- Psychology of sport, trade, scientific and artistic creativity .

- Age-related psychology - studies the ontogenesis of various mental processes and psychological qualities of the individual.

- Psychology of abnormal development : oligophrenopsychology, deaf psychology, typhlopsychology

- Comparative psychology - explores the phylogenetic forms of mental life.

- Social Psychology - explores the forms of relationship between the collective and the individual, the psychological characteristics of the so-called "small groups", the relationships within collectives and groups.

2. Classification of psychological research methods

Psychology Methods - a set of methods and techniques for studying mental phenomena.

Psychology Methods:

1. Organizational (determine the method of organizing psychological research):

Comparative - a comparison of different groups by age, activity, etc.

Longitudinal - multiple examinations of the same individuals over a long period

Comprehensive - representatives of various sciences take part in the study

2. Empirical (methods of collecting primary information):

Observation (consisting of a systematic and focused perception and fixation of mental phenomena in certain conditions (studies memory, attention, thinking, character, abilities);

An experiment (a researcher systematically manipulates one or several factors and fixes the concomitant changes in the manifestation of the phenomenon under study. 2 types: laboratory (in specially organized conditions, using instruments), natural (special conditions, but close to natural, for example, in a classroom lesson);

Testing (a special task that allows you to quickly evaluate the corresponding mental phenomenon and the level of its development in the subject).

Types of tests:

1. according to the form of carrying out - individual, group

2. by purpose - for selection, for distribution, for classification

3. according to the studied attribute - intelligence tests; achievement tests; personality tests (questionnaires, projective, situational)

Questioning (the personality of the child - his inclinations, interests, character, cognitive processes - perception, perceptions, imagination, thinking; - questions should be thought out in advance)

Analysis of the products of activity (when studying mainly the personality of a child - his inclinations, interests, character, cognitive processes, questions should be thought out in advance)

biographical method

3. Data processing (allow quantitative processing of primary information):

Quantitative - methods of statistical processing of information

Qualitative - differentiation of material into groups, analysis

4. Interpretation (various methods of explaining patterns revealed as a result of static processing of data and their comparison with previously established facts):

Genetic - analysis of the material in terms of development with the allocation of individual phases, stages, etc.

Structural - the establishment of structural relationships between all the characteristics of the studied phenomenon

5. Impact (correction) - techniques for influencing mental phenomena with the aim of changing them in accordance with the stated purpose:

Autotraining, group training, psychotherapy, role-playing games, hypnosis, psychoanalysis.

An auxiliary device - self-observation - a person himself observes the course of certain mental processes (for example, tells how he thinks when solving a mathematical problem).

3. The main stages of development of psychological science

Stage 1 - Psychology as the science of the soul - this definition of psychology was given more than 2,000 years ago. By the presence of the soul, they tried to explain all incomprehensible phenomena in human life.

2 stage - Psychology as a science of consciousness - arose in the 17th century in connection with the development of the natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire was called consciousness. The main method of study was the observation of a person over himself and a description of the facts.

3 stage - Psychology as a science of behavior - this stage began at the beginning of the 20th century. The tasks of psychology are observation of human behavior, actions, and reactions (which can be directly seen). Motives of actions were not taken into account.

4th stage - Psychology as a science that studies the facts, laws, and mechanisms of the psyche - the modern stage of development of psychology is characterized by a variety of approaches to the essence of the psyche, the transformation of psychology into a diversified, applied field of knowledge that takes into account the interests of practice.

4. Mental phenomena and psychological facts

Mental phenomena are ours:

Perceptions

Thoughts (about something good or bad)

Feelings (e.g. love, resentment),

Desires (get an education, get married)

Intentions (to make a report, resolve the issue)

Desires (to have something, to buy a beautiful thing),

Experiences (personal to a person, an event of his inner life, about a bad mark, about a disease),

Reflections, indifference (i.e., one interests us, the other is indifferent to us),

Pleasures (from a read book, a good movie)

Indignation, indignation (seeing a person’s unworthy behavior, we criticize him)

Joy (from the birth of a child, a pleasant gift)

Persistence (we achieve the implementation of the plans)

Remembering, forgetting, mindfulness

Mental phenomena are divided into:

Mental processes - cognitive (sensations, perceptions, memory, thinking, imagination); emotional (emotions, feelings); regulatory (will, speech)

Mental states - wakefulness, mood, stress

Mental properties - the orientation of the personality (interests, desires, beliefs); temperament (in its pure form little studied); character abilities

5. The subject and tasks of general psychology

Psychology - This is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena.

Psyche - this is a property of highly organized matter (the brain), which consists in actively reflecting the objective world, in constructing a picture of the world and self-regulation on this basis of their behavior and activities. The ability of living organisms to respond to neutral stimuli acts as an objective criterion of the psyche (in a drought, animals move closer to a reservoir, hearing the sound of cars, they move away, move away from noise)

The subject of general psychology is patterns of development and manifestation of mental processes, mental states, mental properties, mental formations.

The subject of the study of psychology is the human psyche:

Mental processes - cognitive, emotional, volitional;

Mental conditions - vigor, fatigue, euphoria, stress, panic, etc .;

Mental education - knowledge, skills, habits;

Mental properties (personality traits) - temperament, character, abilities, needs, interests, orientation.

Main challenge Psychology is the study of the laws of human mental activity.

The laws of psychology show:

How a person cognizes the surrounding objective world, how it is reflected in the human brain;

How does human mental activity develop?

How are the mental properties of the personality formed.

They are necessary for the formation of high human qualities in people. The main object of study is a person, his mental processes, conditions and properties.

6. Stages of the development of the psyche in phylogenesis

Phylogenesis - historical formation of a group of organisms.

In psychology, the process of the emergence and historical development of the psyche and behavior of animals, as well as the process of occurrence and evolution of forms of consciousness in the course of human history.

Unconditioned reflex - a hereditarily fixed stereotypical form of response to biologically significant effects of the external world or changes in the internal environment of the body.

Stages:

1. The development of sensory processes - simple unconditioned reflexes (migration, continuation of the species, herd (group) behavior, defensive behavior, hygienic behavior)

2. The development of perceptual processes - complex unconditioned reflexes (instincts) - these are complex innate actions of animals by which they satisfy their needs.

3. The development of intellectual actions - animal skills (such actions of animals that they acquire in individual experience through repeated repetition and consolidation - for example, training animals in a circus).

4. Physiopsychological development of man in the process of work - since primitive times in the process of labor, the physical and mental characteristics of man have improved, his brain and sensory organs, mental qualities, and abilities have developed.

5. The development of human consciousness is the highest stage in the development of the psyche, which arose in the process of public labor activity of people with constant communication between them using the language, which opens up the possibility of a generalized and comprehensive knowledge of the laws of nature and society, the active transformation of the world.

6. The development of self-awareness - the ability to know oneself by knowing others; the need to realize oneself as a person, the emergence of interest in one’s inner life, to the qualities of the personality itself, the need for self-esteem.

7. The development of social behavior - the complex ability to interpret the laws of society

7. The concept, structure and content of consciousness

Consciousness - brain function, the essence of which is:

1 essence - in an adequate, generalized and verbal form of active reflection of reality (with the help of language, a person transmits to people not only messages about his internal states, but also about what he knows, sees, understands, represents, i.e. objective information about the world);

2 essence - in linking newly received information with previous experience (I open one eye in the morning and determine where I am, then I am conscious)

3 essence - the separation by a person of himself from the surrounding world, the opposition of himself as a subject, the constructive and creative alteration of the external world (a cognitive subject, capable of mentally representing the existing and imaginary reality, controlling his own mental and behavioral states, managing them, the ability to see and perceive in the form of images surrounding reality)

The main condition for the emergence and development of human consciousness is the joint productive, speech-mediated weapons of people

Human consciousness is a testimony and a derivative component of his real life. The characteristics of consciousness - continuity, dynamism, direction (what is the interest)

Structure of consciousness:

Awareness of things, as well as experience, that is, a certain attitude to the content of what is reflected

Feel,

Perceptions

Representation,

Concepts

Thinking

Attention

Excitement,

Delight,

Hatred

21. Typology of character (E. From, C. Jung)

Types of character according to E. From (psychiatrist of Freudian orientation):

1. "Masochist-sadist ". This is the type of person who is inclined to see the reasons for his life's successes and failures, as well as the reasons for the observed social events, not in current circumstances, but in people. In an effort to eliminate these causes, he directs his aggression to a person who seems to him the cause of failure

An interesting observation by E. Fromm, who claims that in this type of people, along with masochistic inclinations, sadistic tendencies are almost always revealed. They are manifested in the desire to make people dependent on themselves, to acquire complete and unlimited power over them, to exploit them, inflict pain and suffering on them, and enjoy a vision of how they suffer. This type of person is called an authoritarian person. E. Fromm showed that such personality traits were inherent in many despots known in history, and included in their number Hitler, Stalin, and a number of other famous historical figures.

2. The Destroyer. It is characterized by a pronounced aggressiveness and an active desire to eliminate, destroy the object that caused frustration (deception, futile expectation), the collapse of hope in this person. E. Fromm showed that such personality traits were inherent in many despots known in history, and included in their number Hitler, Stalin, and a number of other famous historical figures.

3. "Conformist machine." Such an individual, faced with intractable social and personal life problems, ceases to be himself.

He implicitly submits to circumstances, to a society of any type, to the requirements of a social group, quickly mastering the type of thinking and mode of behavior that is characteristic of most people in a given situation. Such a person almost never has his own opinion or expressed social position. He actually loses his own "I". The typology deduced by E. Fromm is real in the sense of the word, which really resembles the behavior of many people during social events taking place in our country now or in the past.

Types of characters according to C. Jung:

1. Extrovert (open) - we are dealing with a sociable person who always and everywhere shows a special interest in what is happening around. The extrovert puts the outside world above its internal subjective experiences. He vividly responds to relevant events and, as it were, lives by them.

2. Introverted (closed) .- we notice that all the attention of a person is directed to himself and he becomes the center of his own interests

An introverted person puts himself and the individual inner world above what is happening around. They are distinguished by detachment from what is happening around, estrangement, independence.

22. The degree of severity of character. Accentuation

Degrees of severity of character in the system of relations:

1. "Man is the world around us" - convinced, unprincipled

2. "Man - activity" - active, inactive

3. "Man - other people" - sociable, reserved

4. "Man - I" - selfish, altruistic

Character accentuation - excessive severity of individual character traits and their combinations, representing extreme variants of the norm, bordering on psychopathies.

Types of accentuation:

1. Cycloid - the alternation of phases of good and bad mood with a different period.

2. Hypertensive - constantly high spirits, increased mental activity

3. Labile - a sharp change of mood depending on the situation

4. Asthenic - fatigue, irritability, tendency to depression

5. Sensitive - increased sensitivity, a heightened sense of inferiority

6. Psychasthenic (anxious) - high anxiety, suspiciousness, a tendency to introspection, doubts

7. Schizoid - isolation, emotional coldness, difficulty in making contacts

8. Epileptoid - a tendency to an angry, dreary mood with aggression, pedantry

9. Stuck - increased suspicion, resentment, desire for dominance

10. Demonstrative - a high need for recognition, attention, deceit, hypochondria.

11. Distant - the predominance of low mood, a tendency to depression

12. Sustainable - easily influenced by others, search for new adventures, companies

13. Conformal - excessive subordination and dependence on the opinions of others, conservatism.

23. The concept of imagination. Functions and properties of the imagination

Imagination Is a mental process that consists in creating new images based on data from past experience .

A person can mentally imagine something that in the past he did not perceive or did not commit, images of objects and phenomena that he had not met before could arise in him. The process of imagination is peculiar only to man and is a necessary condition for his labor activity. . Thanks to imagination, a person creates, intelligently plans his activities and manages it. Almost all human material and spiritual culture is a product of people's imagination and creativity. Imagination is always directed at the practical activity of man. A person, before doing anything, imagines what needs to be done and how he will do it. Thus, he already creates an image of a material thing in advance that will be made in the subsequent practical activity of a person. This ability of a person to present in advance the final result of his work, as well as the process of creating a material thing, sharply distinguishes human activity from the "activity" of animals, sometimes very skillful.

Functions:

1. in the regulation of emotional states. With the help of his imagination, a person is able to at least partially satisfy many needs, relieve the tension generated by them

2. Represent reality in images and be able to use them to solve problems. This function of imagination is connected with thinking and is organically included in it.

3. participation in the arbitrary regulation of cognitive processes and human conditions, in particular perception, attention, memory, speech, emotions. With the help of skillfully invoked images, a person can pay attention to the necessary events. Through images, he gets the opportunity to control perception, memories, utterances

4. consists in forming an internal plan of action - the ability to carry them out in the mind, manipulating images.

5. planning and programming of activities, preparation of such programs, assessment of their correctness, implementation process. With the help of imagination, we can control many psychophysiological conditions of the body, tune it to upcoming activities.

Properties:

1. Creativity is an activity, the result of which is the creation of new material and spiritual values.

2. A dream is an emotional and concrete image of the desired future, characterized by a weak knowledge of the ways to achieve it and a passionate desire to translate it into reality.

3. Agglutination - the creation of new images based on the “bonding” of parts, existing images.

4. Emphasis - the creation of new images by emphasizing, highlighting certain features.

5. Hallucination - unrealistic, fantastic images that arise in a person during diseases that affect the state of his psyche.

24. Types of imagination. Ways to create imagery

Kinds:

Depending on the participation of the will:

1. Passive (involuntary) - the creation of new images without specific human intentions, in the absence or weakening of conscious control. (In the images of the passive imagination, the unmet, mostly unconscious needs of the personality are "satisfied").

2. Active (voluntary) - the creation of new images in accordance with a consciously set task and with the help of volitional efforts (always aimed at solving a creative or personal task. Active imagination is directed more outside, a person is mainly occupied with the environment, society, activity and less internal subjective problems).

By the nature of the image being created:

3. Reproductive - a type of imagination in which the creation of images is based on previously perceived.

4. Productive - characterized in that in it reality is consciously constructed by a person, and not just mechanically copied or recreated.

5. Creative - the creation of new images in the process of human creative activity.

Ways to create images of imagination:

1. The isolation of the image of the subject

2. Change in the size of objects

3. Connection of parts of objects

4. Construction of the subject

5. The mental reinforcement of images

6. Mental attenuation of images

7. Transfer to other objects

8. Creating images based on generalizations

25. The concept of intelligence

Intelligence - a relatively stable structure of human mental abilities.

Intelligence is based on memory, attention, the speed of mental processes, the ability to exercise, the development of an understanding of the language, the degree of fatigue in the performance of mental operations, the ability to logical thinking, resourcefulness.

It is closely interconnected with all cognitive functions of a person, however, in order to more successfully investigate the process of solving problems, intelligence is considered as a separate function. Intelligence is based on memory, attention, the speed of mental processes, the ability to exercise, the development of an understanding of the language, the degree of fatigue when performing mental operations, the ability to logical thinking, resourcefulness, etc.

26. Emotions and feelings. The main functions and properties of emotions

Emotions (feelings) - mental states expressing a person’s attitude to the surrounding reality, to other people, to himself. A person not only actively learns objects and phenomena of the world, but also experiences a certain attitude towards them. Some events excite him, he is indifferent to others, he likes some things, others leave him indifferent, he loves some people, hates others, experiences pleasure and displeasure, joy and grief, despair and inspiration. In humans, the main function of emotions is that, thanks to emotions, we better understand each other, can, without using speech, judge each other's states and better adapt to joint activities and communication.

Functions of emotions:

· Evaluation - in human activities they perform the function of evaluating its progress and results. They organize activity by stimulating and directing it;

· Signal - emotions signal a person about the state of his needs about the effects of beneficial or harmful on the body;

· Incentive - emotions act as powerful sources;

Communicative - mimic and pantomimic movements allow a person to transfer their experiences to other people.

Feelings - one of the main forms of a person’s experience of his attitude to objects and phenomena of reality, characterized by stability and arising from the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of higher needs.

Properties of emotions:

1. versatility

2. dynamism

3. dominant (stronger emotions can suppress)

4. adaptation

5. infectiousness (positive or negative emotions can affect others)

6. carry

7. ambivalence (simultaneous coexistence of 2 different-mode emotions)

8. summation

27. Speech and language. Functions and types of speech

Speech - The process of using a person’s language to communicate with other people. Speech is a means of thinking. Thanks to speech, people exchange their thoughts and knowledge, talk about their feelings, experiences, intentions and dreams.

Tongue - a system of verbal signs through which communication between people is carried out (communicating with each other, people use words and use the grammatical rules of a particular language - Russian, German, French, etc.). Language and speech are inextricably linked, constitute unity.

Speech Functions:

1. Expressions

2. Impacts

3. Messages, communication

4. Designations

Speech Types:

1. Oral - communication between people by pronouncing the words out loud, on the one hand, and by listening to them by people, on the other.

It is divided into: a) monological - the speech of one person, for a relatively long time expressing his thoughts

b) dialogue - a conversation in which at least two interlocutors participate

2. Written - is depicted graphically, using written signs (letters) denoting the sounds of oral speech. Feature - it is addressed to the absent reader, who is in a different place, in a different setting and will read what was written only after some time.

3. Inner - speech to oneself. It is used in the process of thinking. This speech allows a person to think on the basis of his native language even when a person does not speak loudly. People usually think the language they speak. Before expressing an idea verbally or in writing, a person often pronounces it to himself, i.e. in inner speech.

Speech Properties:

1. Expressiveness

2. Effectiveness: a) teaching

b) instruction

3. Understanding

28. Types of emotions and feelings

Kinds of feelings:

1. Intellectual - feelings associated with cognitive activity of a person (this is a sense of surprise, a sense of doubt, a sense of confidence, a sense of satisfaction).

2. Moral - feelings in which a person’s attitude to the requirements of public morality is expressed (sense of duty, conscience).

3. Aesthetic - feelings that a person has in connection with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of aesthetic needs (a sense of sublime, beautiful and beautiful, a sense of heroism, a sense of dramatic, aesthetic feelings are music, painting, sculpture, artistic prose, works of architecture, contemplation of nature) .

Types of emotions:

1. Stenic (invigorating) - experiences that increase the activity of a person, increase the strength and energy of a person

2. Asthenic (depressing) - experiences that reduce the activity of a person, reduce the strength and energy of a person.

K. Isard singled out fundamental and basic emotions

Interest is a positive emotional state that contributes to the development of skills and knowledge

Joy is a positive emotional state associated with the ability to fully satisfy a current need

Surprise is an emotion reaction to sudden circumstances. Slows down all previous emotions, directing attention to the object that caused it

Suffering - a negative emotional state associated with received reliable or seemingly such information about the impossibility of satisfying the most important needs

Anger is a negative emotional state, usually occurring in the form of affect and caused by a sudden serious obstacle in meeting the need

Aversion is a negative emotional state caused by objects, the interaction with which comes into sharp conflict with the principles and attitudes of the subject.

Contempt is a negative emotional state. arising in interpersonal relationships and generated by the mismatch of life positions, views

Fear is a negative emotional state that appears when a subject receives information about a possible threat to his life’s well-being, about a real or imaginary danger

Shame - Negative Emotional State

29. Emotional states: stress, mood, affect, frustration

1. Stress - understand the emotional state of a person that occurs in response to a variety of extreme conditions.

Stressful condition - a state of neuropsychic stress arising in an unusual, labor situation - in the presence of danger, with great physical and mental overload, if necessary, making quick and responsible decisions.

It is a state of excessively strong and prolonged psychological stress that occurs in a person when his nervous system receives emotional overload. Stress disorganizes human activity, disrupts the normal course of his behavior. Stresses, especially if they are frequent and prolonged, have a negative effect not only on the psychological state, but also on the physical health of a person.

2. Mood - a stable emotional state, manifesting as a positive or negative background of the psychic life of the individual (depending on the circumstances, there may be good, bad, elevated)

Allocate:

1. euphoria - increased joyful mood, a state of complacency and carelessness, an experience of complete satisfaction with one’s condition

2. dysphoria - an angry, dreary mood with an experience of dissatisfaction with oneself and others, often accompanied by aggression

3. anxiety - the experience of inner anxiety, the expectation of trouble, trouble, disaster

3. Affect - short-term strong emotional disturbance associated with a sharp change in vital circumstances important for the subject.

Allocate:

1. physiological - anger or joy

2. asthenic - quickly depleting depressed mood, decreased mental activity and tone

3. stenic - increased well-being, mental activity, a sense of own strength

4. pathological - a short-term mental disorder that occurs in response to intense mental trauma and expresses in the concentration of consciousness on traumatic experiences

4. Frustration - an emotional state caused by objectively or subjectively insurmountable difficulties on the way to achieving a significant goal.

The term itself, translated from Latin, means - deception, futile expectation. Frustration is experienced as tension, anxiety, despair, anger that grips a person when, on the way to achieving a goal, he encounters unexpected obstacles that interfere with the satisfaction of needs.

30. The concept of will. The structure of volitional action

Will - a mental process characterized by the ability of the subject to set a goal, see and choose ways to achieve it, go to the intended, overcoming external or internal obstacles.

The will is a person’s conscious regulation of his behavior and activities associated with overcoming internal and external obstacles. Will as a characteristic of consciousness and activity appeared along with the emergence of society, labor activity. Will is an important component of the human psyche, inextricably linked with cognitive motives and emotional processes.

Will is needed when choosing a goal, making decisions, when taking action, overcoming obstacles. Overcoming obstacles requires volitional effort - a special state of neuropsychic tension, mobilizing the physical, intellectual and moral forces of man. The will manifests itself as a person’s confidence in his abilities, as a determination to perform the act that the person himself considers appropriate and necessary in a particular situation.

Performing various types of activities, while overcoming external and internal obstacles, a person develops volitional qualities in himself: determination, determination, independence, initiative, perseverance, endurance, discipline, courage.

The structure of volitional action:

Volitional actions are simple and complex.

To simple they include those in which a person without hesitation goes to the intended goal, it is clear to him what and in what way he will achieve. For a simple volitional action, it is characteristic that the choice of a goal, the decision to perform an action in a certain way are carried out without a struggle of motives.

In a complex strong-willed action The following stages are distinguished:

1. awareness of the goal and the desire to achieve it ( the preparatory stage, at which the goal is realized, the ways and means of achieving the goal are determined and a decision is made. e if the goal is set from the outside and its achievement is mandatory for the performer, then it remains only to know it, having formed a certain image of the future result of the action);

2. awareness of a number of opportunities (this is actually a mental action, which is part of a volitional action, the result of which is the establishment of a causal relationship between the methods of performing a volitional action under existing conditions and possible results);

3. the emergence of motives that affirm or deny these opportunities ( each of the motives, before becoming a goal, goes through the stage of desire (in the case when the goal is chosen independently). A wish - it is the existing ideal (in the head of a person) content needs. To desire something is first of all to know the content of the stimulus).

4. struggle of motives and choice (it may be of the same level - one wants to go to the cinema and the theater in the evening, one wants to acquire the profession of a driver after graduation) and a struggle of motives of different levels - to go to the cinema or give up doing lessons. In the second case, it is necessary to recognize the level of motives and give preference to the motive of a higher level. When it comes to whether to do what is necessary or what one wants to, one should give preference to the motive “necessary”. At the stage of awareness of the goal and the desire to achieve it, the struggle of motives is allowed by the choice of the goal of the action, after which the tension caused by the struggle of motives at this stage decreases)

5. the adoption of one of the possibilities as a decision (It is characterized by a decrease in tension, because internal conflict is resolved. Here, the means, methods, and sequence of their use are specified, i.e., refined planning is carried out);

6. implementation of the decision (does not exempt a person from the need to exert volitional efforts, and sometimes no less significant than when choosing the goal of the action or methods of its implementation, since the practical implementation of the intended goal is again associated with overcoming obstacles).

31. Willful personality traits

1. Strong will - clear awareness of the goal. The intensive pursuit of its achievement, sufficient opportunities and motives, the struggle of motives and the choice of justified and quick, justified intensive decision, the implementation of the decision is persistent.

2. Persistence - the ability to complete the decisions made, to achieve the goal. Overcoming all sorts of obstacles and difficulties on the way to it.

3. Purposefulness - this is the ability to subordinate your behavior to a sustainable life goal, willingness and determination to devote all the strength and ability to achieve it, the systematic, steady implementation of it.

4. Discipline - conscious submission of their behavior to social rules. Without coercion, he recognizes the obligation to comply with the rules of society.

5. Stubbornness - objectively unreasonable goal and the desire to achieve it, opportunities and motives, the struggle of motives and choice is determined not by an objective consideration of all possibilities, but by a biased opinion, an easily changing decision, a persistent implementation of the decision.

6. Compliance - easily changing goal and the desire to achieve it, opportunities and motives, the struggle of motives and choice is determined by the opinion of others, an easily changing decision, various implementation of the decision.

7. Suggestibility - there are no opportunities and motives, a decision is given from the outside, under the influence of other people's advice, various implementation of the decision.

8. Decision - the ability to make informed and sustainable decisions in a timely manner and move on to their implementation without undue delay.

9. Indecision - clear awareness of the goal. An intense desire to achieve it, sufficient, sometimes excessively opportunities and motives, a long and incomplete struggle of motives and a choice, a decision is missing or often changing, there is no implementation of a solution.

10. Weakness - weak desire for a goal and its achievement, sufficient or small opportunities and motives, an incomplete struggle of motives and choice, decisions without a desire to fulfill, unstable implementation of decisions.

32. The concept of temperament. Temperament components

Temperament - these are individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of the course of his mental processes, strength, poise and behavior. Under the dynamics understand the pace, rhythm, duration, intensity of mental processes, in particular emotional processes, as well as some external features of human behavior - mobility, activity, speed or slow reaction, etc.

Observing the behavior of children and adults, how they work, study, play, how they react to external influences, how they experience joys and sorrows, we undoubtedly pay attention to the great individual differences between people. Some are fast, impetuous, noisy, very mobile, prone to violent emotional reactions; in work, teaching and play impatient, passionate, energetic. Others, on the contrary, are slow, calm, unperturbed, inactive; their feelings are weak and outwardly expressed imperceptibly. All this side of the personality characterizes the concept of “temperament”.

Temperamental property is clearly manifested:

In early childhood

In situations that exclude the possibility of referring to personal experience

Stressful situation

In strictly controlled experimental situations

In new situations attractive to humans

Temperament components:

1. The general activity of mental activity and human behavior is expressed in varying degrees of desire to actively act, master and transform the surrounding reality, to manifest itself in a variety of activities.

2. Motor, or motor activity - shows the state of activity of the motor and speech-motor apparatus. It is expressed in speed, strength, sharpness, intensity of muscle movements and speech of a person, his external mobility (or vice versa, restraint), talkativeness (or silence).

3. Emotional activity - expressed in emotional sensitivity (sensitivity and sensitivity to emotional influences), impulsivity, emotional mobility (the speed of changing emotional states, their beginning and termination).

Temperament is manifested in the activity, behavior and actions of a person and has an external expression.

Subject of psychology

1. The concept of the subject of psychology

Systemic organization and diversity of human psychic phenomena

The subject of psychology in foreign psychological science

The subject of psychology and the development of domestic psychology

1. The concept of the subject of psychology

Each particular science has its own subject of study and differs from other sciences by the features of its subject. So, geology differs from geodesy in that, having the Earth as the subject of research, the first of them studies its composition, structure and history, and the second - its size and shape.

Clarification of the specific features of the phenomena studied by psychology is much more difficult. Understanding of these phenomena in many respects depends on the worldview, which is held by people who are faced with the need to comprehend psychological science.

The difficulty consists, first of all, in the fact that the phenomena studied by psychology have long been distinguished by the human mind and delimited from other manifestations of life as special ones. In fact, it is quite obvious that my perception of a typewriter is something completely special and different from the typewriter itself, a real object that is standing on my desk; my desire to go skiing is something different from a real ski trip; my recollection of the New Year's Eve is something different from what really happened on New Year's Eve, etc. So gradually formed the idea of \u200b\u200bvarious categories of phenomena, which they began to call mental (mental functions, properties, processes, conditions, etc.). They saw their special character in belonging to the inner world of a person, different from what surrounds the person, and attributed to the field of mental life, contrasted with real events and facts. These phenomena were grouped under the names “perception”, “memory”, “thinking”, “will”, “feelings”, etc., together forming what is called the psyche, mental, inner world of a person, his spiritual life, etc. .

Although people directly observing other people in everyday communication dealt with various facts of behavior (actions, deeds, labor operations, etc.), however, the needs of practical interaction forced them to distinguish between mental processes hidden behind external behavior. Behind the act was always seen the intentions, motives that guided the person, the reaction to a particular event - character traits. Therefore, long before mental processes, properties, conditions became the subject of scientific analysis, everyday psychological knowledge of people about each other was accumulating. It was fixed, transmitted from generation to generation, in language, in folk art, in works of art. It was absorbed, for example, by proverbs and sayings: “It is better to see once than to hear ten times” (about the advantages of visual perception and remembering over auditory ones); “Habit is second nature” (on the role of established habits that can compete with innate forms of behavior), etc.

Everyday psychological information, gleaned from social and personal experience, forms pre-scientific psychological knowledge. They can be quite extensive, can to some extent contribute to orientation in the behavior of people around them, and can be correct and consistent with reality within certain limits. However, in general, such knowledge is devoid of systematicity, depth, evidence, and for this reason cannot become a solid basis for serious work with people that requires scientific, i.e. objective and reliable knowledge of the human psyche, allowing to predict his behavior in certain expected circumstances.

Many philosophers have contributed to the development of psychology. The term "psychology" first appeared in scientific use in the XVUI century. in the books of the German philosopher H. Wolf “Rational psychology” and “Empirical psychology”. If at first it belonged to a science that studied mental or psychological phenomena related to consciousness, then already at the beginning of the 20th century, the sphere of psychologists' research included unconscious mental processes, as well as behavior and activity.

Psychology became independent in the 19th century, when an experiment was introduced into this science and research methods were improved. The experimental psychological laboratory founded by W. Wundt at the end of the 19th century in Leipzig (and later the Institute of Experimental Psychology) laid the foundation for a new experimental branch of psychology.

Based on all the above provisions, it seems possible to outline the following subject field of psychology.

The subject of psychology is the laws, trends, features of the development and functioning of the human psyche.

It is important to remember that the psyche in its development undergoes ontogenesis (from the Greek ontos - being, genesis - birth, origin) - the development of an individual organism, and phylogenesis (phyle - gender, species, tribe, genos - origin) - historical formation. The psyche in ontogenesis repeats the achievements of its development in phylogenesis.

Depending on the scientific and practical expediency, psychology is based either on different general psychological and specific schools, or on one of them, one explanatory system. At the same time, there is a real danger of "unconstructive eclecticism." In such contradictory conditions, psychology, being updated, distinctively at various levels enters into interaction with various fields of science. Moreover, she does not lose her scientific and practical image, but explains the problems only within the framework of the accepted theory, system.

It is here that the field of interests of psychology is outlined, in which there are constructive points of conjugation in theory,

What is now included in the system of knowledge that make up the subject of psychology and is studied by it? This, of course, is the human psyche, sensations and perceptions, attention and memory, imagination and thinking, communication and behavior, consciousness and speech, abilities, properties and qualities of a person, and much more, which we will consider later.

Thus, one of the fundamental scientific concepts of psychology is the psyche.

Every animal organism, including the human one, cannot exist without the external environment. She is needed to sustain his life. The connection of the body with the external environment is carried out using the nervous system. The main mechanism of the nervous activity of living beings is the reflex as a response of the body to irritation of the external or internal environment. As established by I.M. Sechenov, mental processes (sensations, thoughts, feelings, etc.) form an integral part of the brain reflexes. The psyche is subjective (i.e., internal, in the form of mental processes), a complex and diverse reflection of the objective world.

So, the soul, the psyche is the inner world of the personality, which arises in the process of human interaction with the surrounding external world, in the process of actively reflecting this world.

The psyche is inherent not only to humans, it is also present in animals. Therefore, psychology should not be understood only as the science of man, it always takes into account the common psyche of animals and humans. On this basis in the history of science there have been and probably will be exaggerations or neglect of the specificity of psychic phenomena in animals and humans.

. Systemic organization and diversity of human psychic phenomena

The psyche contains an internal picture of the world, is inseparable from the human body and represents the cumulative result of the functioning of his body, especially the central nervous system, it provides the possibility of human existence and development in the world. The person is affected by the social environment, the processes occurring in it at the macro and micro levels, therefore the human psyche has its own systemic and semantic organization. Mental phenomena, being the product of an individual’s interaction with the external environment, are themselves active causal factors (determinants) of behavior. Under mental phenomena understand the facts of internal, subjective experience.

The human psyche is complex and diverse in its manifestations. The following groups of mental phenomena are usually distinguished: 1) mental processes, 2) mental states, 3) mental properties, 4) mental formations.

The systemic organization and variety of mental phenomena of a person is shown in Fig.

Fig. Systemic organization and diversity of human psychic phenomena

The human psyche manifests itself in a person in the following blocks of mental phenomena.

Mental processes- a dynamic reflection of reality in various forms of mental phenomena. The mental process is the course of a psychic phenomenon that has a beginning, development, and end, manifested in the form of a reaction. Moreover, the end of the mental process is closely connected with the beginning of a new process. Hence the continuity of mental activity in a state of wakefulness.

Mental processes are elementary mental phenomena that last from a split second to tens of minutes or more. The mental exists as a living, extremely plastic, continuous, never initially completely unsettled, and therefore forming and developing process that generates certain products or results (for example, concepts, feelings, images, mental operations, etc.). Mental processes are always included in more complex types of mental activity.

Mental processes are caused by both external influences and irritations of the nervous system, coming from the internal environment of the body.

All mental processes are divided into cognitive - they include sensations and perceptions, representations and memory, thinking and imagination; emotional - active and true experiences; volitional - decision, execution, volitional effort; etc.

Mental processes provide the formation of knowledge and the primary regulation of human behavior and activity.

In complex mental activity, various processes are connected and make up a single stream of consciousness, providing an adequate reflection of reality and the implementation of various types of activity. Mental processes proceed with different speed and intensity, depending on the characteristics of external influences and personality conditions and as elementary mental phenomena, last from a split second to tens of minutes or more.

The second block is mental states that are longer in comparison with mental processes (can last for several hours, days, or even weeks) and are more complex in structure and education. These include, for example, a state of vivacity or depression, working capacity or fatigue, irritability, distraction, good or bad mood.

The third block is the mental properties of the individual. They are inherent in a person, if not throughout his life, then at least for a sufficiently long period: temperament, character, abilities and persistent features of mental processes in an individual.

Some psychologists identify the fourth block of mental phenomena of a person - mental formations, i.e. what becomes the result of the work of the human psyche, its development and self-development. These are acquired knowledge, skills, habits, etc.

Mental processes, states, properties, as well as human behavior are allocated only for the purpose of study, in reality, all of them act as a single whole and mutually pass into each other. So, for example, a condition that often manifests itself can become an addiction, a habit, or even a character trait. The states of vivacity and activity sharpen attention and sensations, and depression and passivity lead to distraction, superficial perception and even cause premature fatigue.

The second block is mental stateswhich are longer in comparison with mental processes (can last for several hours, days or even weeks) and are more complex in structure and education. These include, for example, a state of vivacity or depression, working capacity or fatigue, irritability, distraction, good or bad mood. In general, mental states are manifested in increased or decreased activity of the individual.

Every person experiences various mental states on a daily basis. In one mental state, mental or physical work is easy and productive, in another it is difficult and ineffective. Mental states have a reflex nature: they arise under the influence of the situation, physiological factors, the course of work, time and verbal influences (praise, censure, etc.).

The most studied now are:

-general mental state, such as attention, manifested at the level of active concentration or distraction,

-emotional states or moods (cheerful, enthusiastic, sad, sad, angry, irritable, etc.),

-a special, creative, state of personality called inspiration.

The third block is mental properties of personality.They are inherent in man, if not throughout his life, then at least for a sufficiently long period. Personality traits are the highest and stable regulators of human mental activity. Under the mental properties of a person are understood stable formations that provide a certain qualitatively-quantitative level of activity and behavior typical of a given person: temperament, character, abilities, orientation, and others. Each mental property is formed gradually in the process of reflection and is fixed in practice. Therefore, it is the result of reflective and practical activity.

The personality traits are diverse and can be classified in accordance with the grouping of mental processes on the basis of which they are formed. On this basis, we can distinguish the properties of intellectual, or cognitive, volitional and emotional activity of a person. For example, we give:

-intellectual properties - observability, flexibility of the mind;

-strong-willed - determination, perseverance;

-emotional - sensitivity, tenderness, passion, efficiency, etc.

Mental properties do not exist together, they are synthesized and form complex structural formations of the personality, which include:

1. The life position of the individual (a system of needs, interesting, beliefs, ideals, which determines the selectivity and level of human activity);
2. Temperament (a system of natural personality traits - mobility, balanced behavior and tone of activity - characterizing the dynamic side of behavior);
3. Abilities (a system of intellectual-volitional and emotional, properties that determines the creative abilities of a person)
4. Character as a system of relationships and behaviors.

Some psychologists - highlight the fourth block of mental phenomena of a person - mental education.This is what becomes the result of the work of the human psyche, its development and self-development. These include acquired knowledge, skills, habits, etc.

Mental processes, states, properties, as well as human behavior, are allocated by us only for the purpose of study. In reality, all of them act as a single whole and mutually pass into each other. So, for example, a condition that often manifests itself can become an addiction, a habit, or even a character trait. The states of vivacity and activity sharpen attention and sensations, and depression and passivity lead to distraction, superficial perception and even cause premature fatigue.

mental perception memory will feeling

3. The subject of psychology in foreign psychology

The whole history of the culture of human civilization contains constructive principles that determine its progressive development. The genesis of psychological knowledge and the integration of its demanded components make it possible in modern conditions to most fully characterize the subject of psychology and to trace its understanding at various historical stages.

Traditional ideas about the subject of psychology indicate the rise of knowledge about the subject of psychology, which was taken as:

Soul;

Phenomenon;

Consciousness;

Behavior;

-the unconscious;

-information processing processes and the results of these processes;

-personal experience of a person.

All these subject areas are reflected in the achievements of various traditional and new schools, scientific directions, theories and concepts. The most important of them are as follows.

Behaviorism(from the English. behaviour - behavior) is one of the leading areas of psychology, widely used in various countries and primarily in the United States. The founders of behaviorism - E. Thorndike, J. Watson.

In this area of \u200b\u200bpsychology, the study of the subject is reduced, first of all, to the analysis of behavior. Moreover, sometimes the psyche itself, consciousness, is involuntarily excluded from the subject of research. The main point of behaviorism: psychology should study behavior, not consciousness, the psyche, which in principle are not directly observable.

Behavior is understood by orthodox behaviorists as a combination of stimulus-response (S-R) relationships. According to behaviorists, knowing the strength of acting stimuli and taking into account the past experience of a person, it is possible to study the processes of learning, the formation of new forms of behavior. In this case, consciousness does not play any role in learning, and new forms of behavior should be considered as conditioned reflexes.

To some extent, neo-behaviorism has abandoned the classical formula of behaviorism (S-R), but is also trying to take into account the manifestation of consciousness as a real determinant of human behavior. At the same time, it becomes obvious that in the interval between the action of the stimulus and behavioral reactions, the incoming information is processed as an active process, without which it is not possible to explain the human reaction to the available stimuli. This is how neo-behaviourism arises with its most important concept of “incoming or intermediate variables”. Many of the conclusions and achievements of behaviorism are scientifically fruitful and extremely practical.

Psychoanalysisor freudianismappears as a general designation of various schools and teachings that arose on the scientific basis of the psychological doctrine of 3. Freud, which acts as a key link in a single psychotherapeutic concept. Psychoanalysis (from the Greek. Psyche - soul and analysis - decomposition, dismemberment) - a doctrine developed by 3. Freud and exploring the unconscious and its relationship with the conscious in the human psyche. Later Freudianism elevated its position to the rank of general psychological theory, gaining great influence throughout the world. Freudianism is characterized by an explanation of mental phenomena through the unconscious, and its core is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe eternal conflict between the conscious and the unconscious in the human psyche.

Psychoanalysis is closely connected with the theory of Z. Freud about experiences in the mental activity of the personality of subconscious instinctual drives. In the structure of personality Z. Freud distinguishes three components:

1) ID (IT) - a cell of blind instincts, drives, seeking immediate gratification, regardless of the person’s relationship with the environment. These aspirations, emerging from the subconscious into consciousness, become a source of human activity, peculiarly direct his actions and behavior. Psychoanalysts attach particular importance to drives;

1. EGO (I) - a regulator that perceives information about the environment and the state of its own organism, stores it in memory and organizes actions in the interests of self-preservation;
2. Super-Ego (Super-I) - a set of moral standards, prohibitions and rewards that are assimilated by a person in the process of education, and mostly subconsciously,

According to 3. Freud, human actions are driven by deep motives that elude clear consciousness. He created a method of psychoanalysis, with which you can explore the deep motives of a person and manage them. The basis of the psychoanalytic method is the analysis of free associations, dreams, descriptions and reservations, etc. The roots of human behavior are in his childhood. A fundamental role in the process of formation, a developed person is assigned to instincts and drives.

In the framework of the psychoanalytic direction, there are other points of view. So, Freud’s student A. Adler believed that the basis of the behavior of each person is not attraction, but a very strong sense of inferiority that occurs in childhood, when the child is very dependent on his parents and his environment.

K.G. Jung believed that the personality is formed both under the influence of conflicts of early childhood, and also inherits the images of ancestors that came from the depths of centuries. Therefore, when studying a person and working with him, it is also necessary to take into account the concepts of “collective unconscious”. He proposed the concept of analytical psychology, which recognizes not only the role of the unconscious in the form of archetypes, conscious, but also the group unconscious as an autonomous psychic phenomenon.

In the neo-Freudian concept of K. Horney, behavior is determined by the “basic anxiety” (or “basal anxiety”) intrinsic to each person, which underlies intrapersonal conflicts.

Gestalt psychology(from German: gestalt - a holistic form, image, structure) - one of the largest areas in foreign psychology that arose in Germany in the first half of the 20th century and put forward as a central thesis the need for a holistic approach to the analysis of complex mental phenomena. A significant place in the framework of gestalt psychology is associationism- doctrine in psychology, considering the human mental life as a combination of separate (discrete) phenomena of the psyche and attaching particular importance to the principle of association in explaining mental phenomena.

Gestalt psychology devoted the main attention to the study of the higher mental functions of man (perception, thinking, behavior, etc.) as integral structures that are primary in relation to their components. The main representatives of this trend are the German psychologists M. Wertheimer, V. Keller, K. Koffka.

Humanisticpsychology is a trend in foreign psychology, which has been booming recently in our country, recognizing as its main subject personality as a unique integral system, which is not something predefined, but an “open possibility” of self-actualization inherent only to man. Within the framework of humanistic psychology, a prominent place is occupied by the personality theory developed by the American psychologist A. Maslow. The fundamental human needs according to this theory are: physiological (food, water, sleep, etc.); need for security, stability, order; the need for love, a sense of belonging to some kind of community of people (family, friendship, etc.); need for respect (self-affirmation, recognition); need for self-actualization.

Genetic psychology- A doctrine developed by the Geneva Psychological School of J. Piaget and his followers, studying the origin and development of human intelligence, especially in his childhood. Its psychological concept: the development of intelligence takes place in the process of transition from egocentrism (centering) through decentration to an objective position through exterior and interiorization.

Individual psychology- one of the areas of deep psychology, developed by A. Adler and proceeding from the concept of the individual having an inferiority complex and the desire to overcome it as the main source of motivation for personality behavior. The greatest distribution, especially in the field of pedagogy and psychotherapy, individual psychology received in the 20s of this century.

Transaction analysis concept- the totality of the scientific views of the American psychologist E. Berne and his followers that the fate of a person is predetermined to a significant extent by the features of his unconscious, which, as it were, draws him to certain events - success, failure, tragedies, etc. According to E. Berne, a certain small person sits in an unconscious person and pulls the ropes, controlling the life of a large person according to the scenario recorded in the unconscious with the help of life situations that occurred during the active formation of the unconscious (childhood, youth).

Differentialpsychology (from lat. differentia - difference) - a branch of psychology that studies mental differences, both between individuals and between groups of people, the causes and consequences of these differences.

Critical psychology- a direction in foreign psychology (mainly Marxists of oriented German psychology) that arose at the turn of the 60-70s of the XX century (K. Holzkamp, \u200b\u200bU. Holtskamp-Osterkamp, \u200b\u200bP. Kyler and others), based on the theory of activity of A. N. Leont'ev and investigating the sociogenesis of the psyche of individuals, social communities (class, social group, etc.). It sets as its main goal the creation of general psychology as a general theoretical and methodological foundation of psychological science, which involves a critical analysis of all schools and areas in psychology and the development of a new categorical apparatus, taking into account the achievements and flaws of existing concepts.

Critical psychology makes extensive use of the Marxist methodology and a number of concepts of Soviet psychology. Particular attention is paid to the criticism and further development of the theory of activity of the Soviet psychologist A.N. Leont'ev, in particular, studies of activity and the “image of the world” in sociogenesis, as well as ontogenesis and the actual genesis of the psyche among representatives of various classes, groups and layers of modern society, which was not previously considered in the theory of activity. One of the key positions is the concept of “ability to act”. It is understood as the ability of an individual, thanks to his participation in society, to control and arbitrarily regulate his own living conditions.

Parapsychology(from Greek para - near, about) - the area of \u200b\u200bhypotheses, representations, fixing and trying to explain:

1. forms of sensitivity that ensure the reception of information in ways that cannot be explained by the activity of the known sensory organs;
2. forms of exposure of a living being to physical phenomena that occur without the help of muscle effort.

Often, in the framework of parapsychology, hypnosis, premonitions, clairvoyance, spiritualism, telekinesis, telepathy, psychokinesis and other phenomena, both real and imaginary, are investigated.

Phenomenal psychology- the direction of foreign, mainly American (R. Burns, C. Rogers, A. Kombas) psychology, which has declared itself to be a "third force" and, in contrast to behaviorism and Freudianism, has drawn the main attention to the integral human "I", its personal self-determination, its emotions, relationships, values, beliefs. Phenomenalistic psychology considers personality behavior as a result of a person's perception of a situation.

Acmeology- a science that arose at the intersection of natural, social and humanitarian disciplines and studying the phenomenology, patterns and mechanisms of human development at the stage of his maturity and especially when he reaches the highest level in this development - acme.Its content can be represented through a combination of scientific and applied components, which are based and developed at the intersection of the natural, social and technical sciences. Such an approach makes it possible to study the phenomenology of individual and group social subjects, the laws, mechanisms, conditions, and factors of their productive development and implementation in real life.

4. The subject of psychology and the development of domestic psychology

In modern conditions, one of the traditions of Russian psychology is emerging, which manifests itself in its desire to rely on the constructive achievements of not only various directions, schools and trends. In this tradition, there is also a reliance on many other achievements of scientific science, which make it possible to obtain the most objective picture of the world in which key positions are given to a man-figure who creates himself and the surrounding reality. This tradition is a priority, but not the only one, especially recently. Today, voices about the need for new approaches, ideas, paradigms are sounding more and more insistently.

In our country at the end of the 90s of the last century, the natural-scientific approach to psychology became defining and officially recognized.

In recent years, we are witnessing a situation where more and more psychologists raise the question of changing the image of psychological science:

-changing the image of natural science to a humanitarian image;

-shift of emphasis from explanation to description;

-from universality to uniqueness, originality;

-from fragmentary-partial study to holistic-integrative cognition and transformation.

The new situation in psychological science leads to problems that are associated with the refinement of the subject, the identification of the ratio of theoretical, methodological and applied within psychological science, the definition of relationships with the natural, social and technical sciences. It is their solution that can ensure the implementation of a holistic-integrative approach.

For domestic psychology, the results of rethinking all its methodological foundations are fundamentally acceptable. It focuses on the typology generally accepted in modern science and directly in general psychology, highlighting the following levels of methodology:

1. level of philosophical methodology;
2. methodology level of general scientific principles of research;
3. level of specific scientific methodology;
4. level of methods and research techniques.

1. The level of philosophical methodology.Here, the main problem is the image of a person as an integral phenomenon with the following macro-characteristics: individual, subject of activity, personality and individuality. Moreover, he has his own philosophical and life concept, strategy, in accordance with which he builds his life path. It is here that the main intersection of scientific interests of both philosophy, psychology, acmeology, and other sciences is indicated.

For a constructive solution to common problems, the constructive potential of such human images as:

1. “Man - sensing” (introspective psychology);
2. “Man is need” (psychoanalysis of 3. Freud);
3. “Man -“ stimulus-response ”(behavioral psychology);
4. “Man is a doer” (S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontyev, and others);
5. “Man is an integral phenomenon” (V. M. Bekhterev, B. G. Ananiev, A. A. Bodalev, etc.), etc. When psychology encounters a problem that it cannot solve, it first turns to philosophy and practice. So, for example, L.S. Vygotsky, arguing about the causes of the crisis in psychology, came to the conclusion that the way out of it was reliance on philosophy and practice; “Oddly and paradoxically at first glance, but it is practice, as a constructive principle of science, that requires philosophy, that is, methodology of science. " And further: "The dialectical unity of methodology and practice, applied from two sides to psychology, is the fate and destiny of ... psychology."
6. The level of methodology of general scientific principles.One of the basic principles of general scientific research is a systematic approach, which means studying the totality of system elements that are in communication with each other, which form a certain integrity, unity. The general characteristics of the system are: integrity, structure, relationship with the environment, hierarchy, multiplicity of description, etc. The acmeological approach, in addition, involves integrity and integration within the framework of a common system of both research and activity, developing models, algorithms and technologies.
7. Specific scientific level of methodology- the level of a specific science - psychology. This level, according to the views of L.S. Vygotsky can be divided into two sublevels.

The first sublevel is the actual methodology of psychology. The main problems of this level: what is the psyche, how does it develop, and how to study it?

The second sublevel is the level of theories of psychological science, which are based on certain positions that were obtained in answers to questions of the first level.

Moreover, based on one solution to the problems of the methodology of psychology, several psychological theories can be created.

Scientific psychological schools of the first sublevel are school schools that for centuries have predetermined the development of psychology. Scientific schools of the second sublevel are psychological schools - specific scientific teams.

The basis of the scientific psychological school was the idea of \u200b\u200ba “unit”, a “cell” of the psyche, by exploring which you can reveal the great secret of the Soul. The following units were used as “units” in different psychological schools: sensations (associative psychology);

1. background figure (gestalt psychology);
2. reaction, reflex (reactology, reflexology);
3. installation (school D.N. Uznadze);
4. behavioral act (behaviorism);
5. reversible operations (school of J. Piaget);
6. values, experiences (school of L.S. Vygotsky);
7. subject activity (school of A.N. Leontiev);
8. indicative basis of activity (school of P.Ya. Halperin);
9. action, act of reflection (school of S.L. Rubinstein), etc.

The psyche is a special quality or property, but quality is not part of a thing, but a special ability. The brain has many qualities, properties, but one of them is the psyche, it is “unextended”, outside the dimensions of things. That is why the history of psychology is the history of resolving the contradictions between the description and explanation of mental life. Why?

The description gives great freedom of expression of all shades of “soul movements”, for which all the richness of the language is used. An explanation is the use of scientific categories, concepts that try to explain the hidden mechanisms of mental life.

Unity: first, generalizing the concept of the broadest primary abstraction (consciousness, subconscious, behavior, etc.); secondly, the explanatory principle (unity of consciousness and activity, association, unity of figure and background, interdependence of stimulus and reaction, etc.) and thirdly, the understanding of the “unity” of the psyche determines the face of a scientific psychological school.

According to K.K. Platonov, the distinguishing side of domestic psychology is the allocation of general psychology. This is dictated by the internal conditions of the whole psychological science, because its subject is “general laws of the psyche”, on the understanding of which all private psychological sciences rely. In turn, the provisions of general psychology are tested in private branches of psychology, where they are enriched, developed, and rejected.

However, in order to study the general laws of the psyche, it is necessary to have an answer to the question in which “coordinate system we work”. Since each scientific psychological school has its own “coordinate system” (generalizing concept, explanatory principle, “unity” of the psyche, the leading method), its own explanatory system. As soon as we call a fact, a phenomenon, we immediately “put it in a certain coordinate system (system)”, it falls into its “explanatory scheme”.

Literature

1.Bern E. Introduction to psychiatry and psychoanalysis for the uninitiated: Trans. from English A.I. Fedorova. - St. Petersburg: Talisman, 2004 .-- 452 p.

2.Bern E. Games that people play. The Psychology of Human Fate: Per. from English / Total. ed. M.S. Matskovsky. - SPb .: Lenizdat, 2006.270 p.

.Dadun Roger. Freud - M .: Publishing House of AO Kh.G.S., 2004 .-- 174 p.

.Laplash J., Pontalis J. B. Dictionary of psychoanalysis. / Per. with fr. - M.: Higher School, 2006. - 150p.

.Psychoanalysis and Culture: Selected Works by Karen Horney and Erich Fromm. - M.: Lawyer, 2005 .-- 243s.

.The psychological dictionary. / Ed. Zinchenko V.P. - M .: Pedagogy-Press, 2006 .-- 465 p.

.Sandler Joseph et al. Patient and psychoanalyst. Fundamentals of the psychoanalytic process. / Sandler D., Der K., Holder A.; Per. from English - 2nd ed., Rev. and add. - M .: Sense, 2001 .-- 346 p.

.Freud, Z. Introduction to Psychoanalysis: Lectures. - M .: Nauka, 2005 .- 125s.

.Freud Z. Psychology of the unconscious: Sat. works / Comp., scientific. ed., ed. entry Art. M.G. Yaroshevsky. - M.: Education, 2007.- 75p.

.Freud, Z. The Interpretation of Dreams. - K .: Health, 2001.- 315 p.

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.Jung K.G. Sigmund Freud // Questions of Psychology. - 2003. - No. 2 - S. 86-103.

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FEATURES OF PSYCHOLOGY
AS SCIENCES

Main questions:

1. The subject, tasks of psychological science and the essence of the phenomena that it studies.
2. Psychology and other sciences.
3. Stages and features of the development of psychological science.

1. The subject, tasks of psychological science and the essence of the phenomena that it studies

Any science always has its own object and subject, its own tasks. Its object, as a rule, is the carriers of those phenomena and processes that it explores, and subject - the specifics of the formation, development and manifestation of these phenomena. The tasks of a particular science are the main directions of its research and development, as well as the goals that it sets for itself to achieve certain results.

Subjectpsychology is the study of the human psyche. However, the psyche is not unique to humans, it is also present in animals. Hence, the objectpsychology is not only a person. It always takes into account the common psyche of animals and humans.

Since the psyche is diverse in its forms and manifestations, for this reason, psychology, firstly, studies everything conscious in a person, i.e. his feelings and perceptions, attention and memory, ideas, imagination and thinking, feelings and experiences, communication and behavior, motives and intentions - all that makes up his subjective and completely controlled inner world, which manifests itself in actions and actions, in relationships and interaction with other people. In general, human consciousness is the highest stage of development

the psyche and the product of socio-historical development of people, the result of their comprehensive improvement in the labor process.

Secondly, psychology studies such phenomena as the unconscious, personality, activity and behavior. The unconscious is a form of reflection of reality, during which a person is not aware of its sources, and the reflected reality merges with his experiences. At the same time, psychological science considers each person as an independent personality, which has certain individual and socio-psychological characteristics and which is engaged in specific activities. The latter is a combination of human actions aimed at satisfying his needs and interests. In turn, behavior is the external manifestations of a person’s mental activity, his immediate actions and actions.

The main taskpsychology as a science is the study of the features of the formation, development and manifestation of mental phenomena and processes. In doing so, she sets herself and a number of other tasks:

• 1) to study the qualitative and structural originality of mental phenomena and processes, which is not only theoretical, but also of great practical importance;
• 2) to analyze the functioning of mental phenomena and processes in connection with their determination by the objective conditions of life and activity of people;
• 3) to investigate the physiological mechanisms underlying psychic phenomena, since without their knowledge it is impossible to properly master the practical means of their formation and development;
• 4) to promote the systematic implementation of scientific knowledge and ideas of psychological science in the practice of people's lives and activities, their interaction and mutual understanding (the development of scientific and practical methods of training and education, rationalization of the labor process in various types of human activities).

In the most general form psyche- This is a subjective image of the objective world that arises in the process of human interaction with the environment and other people. It exists due to the ability of the human brain and

animals reflect the effects of objects and phenomena of reality.

1. Mental processes- these are elementary mental phenomena that provide a primary reflection and recognition by a person of the effects of surrounding reality, lasting from a split second to tens of minutes or more. As a rule, they have a clear beginning, a certain course and a pronounced end.

In general, the psychic exists as a living, extremely plastic, continuous, forming and developing process that gives rise to certain results (for example, feelings, images, mental operations, etc.).

Mental processes are always included in more complex types of mental activity and are divided into:

• cognitive (sensation, perception, attention, representation, memory, imagination, thinking, speech);
• emotional (emotions and feelings);
• strong-willed (will).

2. Mental states longer in comparison with mental processes (may last several hours, days or even weeks) and more complex in structure and education. They determine the level of performance and quality of functioning of the human psyche, characteristic of him at any given time. These include, for example, a state of activity or passivity, vigor or depression, working capacity or fatigue, irritability, distraction, good or bad mood.

3. Mental education- this is what becomes the result of the work of the human psyche, its development and self-development; these are mental phenomena that form in the process of a person acquiring life and professional experience. These should include acquired knowledge, skills and abilities, habits, attitudes, attitudes, beliefs, etc.

4. Mental properties- these are the most stable and constantly manifesting personality traits that provide a certain qualitative and quantitative level of behavior and activity typical of a given person. These include orientation (what does a person want?), Temperament and character (how does a person manifest?) And abilities (what can a person do?). They are inherent in man, if not throughout his life, then at least for a rather long period of time.

5. Socio-psychological phenomena- these are psychological phenomena caused by the interaction, communication and mutual influence of people on each other and their belonging to certain social communities (classes, ethnic groups, small and large groups, religious denominations, etc.).

Mental processes, conditions, properties and human education and socio-psychological phenomena are allocated only for the purpose of study. In reality, all of them act as a single whole and mutually pass into each other. So, for example, a condition that often manifests itself can become an addiction, a habit, or even a character trait. The states of vivacity and activity sharpen attention and sensations, and depression and passivity lead to distraction, superficial perception and even cause premature fatigue.

Representations of psychological phenomena and processes can be of a different nature. On the one hand, a person as a conscious being reflects and perceives the influences of surrounding reality and other people, he thinks, feels and experiences, communicates with other people and influences them, and therefore, in the course of his life and activity, he constantly accumulates mental experience and psychological knowledge. All this everyday psychology - psychological knowledge gained by people from everyday life, from direct interaction with the real world and other people. It usually has the following main distinguishing characteristics:

• specificitythose. attachment to real situations, specific people, specific tasks of human activity;
• intuitivenessindicating a lack of awareness of their origin and patterns of functioning;

• limitation,characterized by weak perceptions of a person about the specifics and areas of functioning of specific psychological phenomena;
• reliance on observation and reflection,meaning that ordinary psychological knowledge is not subjected to scientific understanding;
• limited materialindicating that a person who has some kind of everyday psychological observations can not compare them with similar ones in other people.

On the other hand, a person seeks from a scientific position to systematize his ideas about the psyche. It is already scientific psychologythose. stable psychological knowledge obtained in the process of theoretical and experimental study of the psyche of people and animals. They have their own characteristics: " generalitythose. the meaningfulness of a particular psychological phenomenon based on the specifics of its manifestation in many people, in many conditions, as applied to many tasks of human activity;

• rationalism,testifying that scientific psychological knowledge is maximally investigated and realized;
• unlimitedthose. they can be used by many people and;
• reliance on the experimentwhen scientific psychological knowledge is studied under various conditions;
• weak limitationin materials, meaning that scientific psychological knowledge has been studied on the basis of numerous experiments and often in unique (specially created or specially observed) conditions.

Everyday and scientific psychology are interconnected, perform one function - to improve ideas about the human psyche. However, they play a different role. Everyday psychology only develops psychological representations, while scientific psychology systematizes them.

Psychological science uses various methodsresearch, which usually includes: observation, experiment, method of generalization of independent characteristics, surveys and tests.

Observation - the most common method by which psychological phenomena are studied under various conditions without interference in their course. Observation happens

worldly and scientific, included and not included. Everyday observation is limited to the registration of facts, is random, disorganized in nature. Scientific observation is organized, involves a clear plan, recording the results in a special diary. Included observation involves the participation of the researcher in the activity that he is studying. Unincluded observation does not require this. Observation must be carried out in compliance with certain rules developed by psychological science. It is carried out repeatedly, systematically and invisibly to the observed.

Experiment - a method involving the active intervention of the researcher in the subject's activity with the aim of creating the best conditions for the study of specific psychological phenomena. An experiment can be laboratory when it takes place in specially organized conditions, and the subject's actions are determined by instructions; natural when research is carried out in vivo and direct contacts are not established with the people being studied; stating when only the necessary psychological phenomena are studied; formative, in the process of which certain qualities of the subjects develop.

Independent Characterization Method involves the identification and analysis of opinions about certain psychological phenomena and processes received from various people. It may also include the collection and subsequent generalization of the oral or written characteristics of various individuals about the people being studied.

Performance Analysis- the method of indirect study of psychological phenomena on practical results and objects of work, which embody the creative forces and abilities of people. Usually, in this case, the researcher analyzes how people fulfill the practical tasks assigned to them, how they relate to the task entrusted, and what results they achieve depending on the specific conditions of their activity. All received data are recorded and then generalized.

Interview - a method involving the answers of subjects to specific questions of the researcher. It can be written (questionnaire), when questions are asked on paper, or oral (conversation), when questions are put orally, or in the form of an interview,

during which personal contact with the subject is established. Questionnaires and questionnaires, as a rule, are intended to describe and evaluate a person himself. The conversation differs from ordinary communication in the presence of planning, purpose, selectivity and is conducted individually to avoid the side effects of those present.

Testing- a method in which subjects perform certain actions on the instructions of the researcher. There are projective testing that examines the various manifestations of the psyche of individuals (usually it uses constitutive, interpretative, catharsic, impressive, expressive and additive methods), and psycho-correction testing (usually involving the use of behavioral and cognitive methods of correction, psychoanalysis, gestalt and body-oriented therapy, psychodrama, psychosynthesis and a transpersonal approach).

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1. Psychology as a science. Subject and tasks of psychology

Psychology - and a very old and very young science. Having a millennial past, it is nevertheless all still in the future. Its existence as an independent scientific discipline barely lasts a century, but it can be said with certainty that the main problem has been occupied by human thought ever since a person began to think about the secrets of his world and learn about them.

The famous psychologist of the late XIX - early XX century. G. Ebbinghaus was able to say about psychology very concisely and precisely: psychology has a huge background and a very short history. By history we mean the period in the study of the psyche, which was marked by a departure from philosophy, a rapprochement with the natural sciences and the organization of one's own experimental method. This happened in the last quarter of the XIX century. However, the origins of psychology are lost in the depths of centuries.

Psychology as a science has special qualities that distinguish it from other scientific disciplines. As a system of proven knowledge, few know psychology, mainly only those who specifically deal with it, solving scientific and practical problems. However, as a system of life phenomena, psychology is familiar to every person. It is presented to him in the form of his own feelings, images, ideas, phenomena of memory, thinking, speech, will, imagination, interests, motives, needs, emotions, feelings and much more. The main mental phenomena we can directly detect in ourselves and indirectly observe in other people.

Subject of study Psychology is, first of all, the psyche of man and animals, which includes many subjective phenomena. With the help of some, such as sensations and perceptions, attention and memory, imagination, thinking and speech, a person learns the world. Therefore, they are often called cognitive processes. Other phenomena regulate his communication with people, directly control actions and deeds. They are called mental properties and states of personality (these include needs, motives, goals, interests, will, feelings and emotions, inclinations and abilities, knowledge and consciousness). In addition, psychology studies human communication and behavior, their dependence on mental phenomena and, in turn, the dependence of the formation and development of mental phenomena on them.

Man does not just penetrate the world through his cognitive processes. He lives and acts in this world, creating it for himself in order to satisfy his material, spiritual and other needs, he performs certain actions. In order to understand and explain human actions, we turn to such a concept as a person.

In turn, the mental processes, states and properties of a person, especially in their highest manifestations, can hardly be fully understood if they are not considered depending on the living conditions of a person, on how his interaction with nature and society is organized (activity and communication). Communication and activity are also therefore the subject of modern psychological research.

Mental processes, properties and conditions of a person, his communication and activity are separated and investigated separately, although in reality they are closely related to each other and constitute a single whole, called human life.

Main challenge Psychology as a science is the study of objective psychological laws (mental processes, psychological properties of personality and psychological characteristics of human activity).

This problem is solved primarily by general psychology, which studies the most general laws of the psyche as properties of the brain, expressed in the subjective reflection of the objective world.

In this case, psychology sets the following mutually related tasks:

1. The study of the qualitative (structural) features of mental processes as reflections of objective reality. “Psychology, as a study of the reflection of reality, as a subjective world, known in a certain way in general formulas, is, of course, a necessary thing. Thanks to psychology, I can imagine the complexity of this subjective state ”(I.P. Pavlov).

2. Analysis of the formation and development of mental phenomena in connection with the conditioning of the psyche by the objective conditions of life and human activity.

3. The study of the physiological mechanisms that underlie mental processes, since without knowledge of the mechanisms of higher nervous activity one can neither correctly understand the essence of mental processes nor master the practical means of their formation and development.

2. The basic principles of general psychology

General principles of psychology

The principle of reflection. It reveals an understanding of the essence of the psychic and its basic functions, levels in the development of the human psyche. The peculiarity of the human psyche - a special form of reflection, is due to many circumstances: features of the objective reality itself, perceived both by the senses and with the help of speech; state of the brain; physical and mental health of a person; content and state of his psyche.

The principle of determinism. Explains the reasons for the development of the psyche, its source. The human psyche is caused and acts as a result of the interaction of biological, natural, and social factors. However, the psyche is not just a product, but the result of the interaction and impact on a person of social, biological and natural factors. Thus, the psyche is able to change and develop.

The principle of activity. The researcher orients the study of mental phenomena to take into account that external and other circumstances are reflected in the consciousness of a person consciously, purposefully, and not only in a mirror.

The principle of development. It reveals the origins of the human psyche as a dynamic phenomenon. The psyche can be correctly understood if it is considered as a result of social interaction, human interaction with the social and natural environment as a result of his activity and communication with other people, the result of his training and education.

The principle of interconnection, unity. The identification of two facets of the manifestation of the psychic: subjective (what and how a person thinks, experiences, evaluates) and objective (real behavior, actions and actions of a person, materialized and objectified results of his actions) gives reason to argue that the most adequate understanding of the psychic is possible on the basis of its systems subjective and objective manifestations.

The principle of a holistic, systems approach. It involves the understanding and study of interconnected and interdependent mental phenomena, orienting the specialist to the awareness of the psyche as an integral integral phenomenon.

The principle of relative independence. It does not contradict the previous principle, but indicates that every psychic phenomenon has its own peculiarity, both of its physiological foundations and its own laws of formation, functioning and development.

The principle of a personal approach, taking into account group, public interests, values. The study of the psyche is adequate only when taking into account the totality of personal and group characteristics of people: their needs, interests, life and professional experience, abilities, taking into account the psychotypic and individual psychological characteristics of people.

The principle of unity. It focuses specialists on a meaningful, axiological analysis of the psyche of people, taking into account the specific historical conditions of their life and work.

The most common fundamental concepts that reflect the essential properties and relationships of objects and phenomena of objective reality.

The category of image characterizes the psychological reality from the side of cognition and is the basis for the formation of individual and social-group pictures of the world. This is a sensual form of mental phenomenon. Being always sensual in its form, O. in its content can be m. both sensual (O. perception, O. representations, consistent O.), and rational (O. atom, O. world, O. war, etc.). O. is an essential component of the subject's actions, orienting him in a specific situation, directing him to achieve his goal.

Motive category. A motive is 1) a material or ideal “object” that induces and directs an activity or act toward itself; 2) the mental image of the subject. In a broad sense, it is something within the subject that induces him to act, a person’s conscious sense of his actions. With the help of a motive, a person’s behavior, goals, values, decision-making mechanisms can be described.

Category personality. There are a lot of approaches to understanding and explaining personality. This is due to the fact that the concept of "personality" is an integral one and any definition that exists earlier and now selects only its individual aspects.

A personality in the broad sense is a specific person, as a subject of activity, in the unity of his individual properties and social roles. In the narrow sense, this is the quality of the individual, which is formed due to the life of a person in society, in the process of his social development.

The personality is the most important among the metapsychological categories. All basic categories are integrated in it, all the basic categories are pulled to it: the individual, image, action, motive, attitude, experience.

Action, like an act, is the true being of a person; individuality is manifested in it. Action m. B. relatively independent or enter as a component in. wider structures of activity.

The structure of the Action includes 3 main components: a) decision making; b) implementation; c) control and correction.

* Basic (image, motive, action, attitude, experience, individual)

* Metapsychological. (consciousness, value, activity, communication, feeling, “I”)

4. The concept of method and methodology

The concept of method (from the Greek. Methodos - the path to something) means a combination of techniques and operations of the practical and theoretical development of reality. The method equips a person with a system of principles, requirements, rules, guided by which he can achieve the intended goal. Possession of a method means for a person knowledge of how, in what sequence to perform certain actions to solve certain problems, and the ability to apply this knowledge in practice.

The doctrine of the method began to develop in the science of modern times. Its representatives considered the correct method to be a guideline in the movement towards reliable, true knowledge. So, a prominent 17th-century philosopher F. Bacon compared the method of cognition with a lantern that illuminates the path of a traveler walking in the dark. And another famous scientist and philosopher of the same period, R. Descartes, expressed his understanding of the method as follows: “By method,” he wrote, “I mean exact and simple rules, strict observance of which ... without unnecessary waste of mental strength, but gradually continuously increasing knowledge, contributes to the fact that the mind reaches a true knowledge of everything that is available to him. " The main function of the method is the regulation of cognitive and other types of activity as a simple and affordable "tool" for scientific discovery. Famous Russian physicist, Nobel laureate L. D. Landau said: "The method is more important than discovery."

There is a whole field of knowledge that is specifically engaged in the study of methods, which is commonly called methodology. Methodology literally means "the doctrine of methods" (for this term comes from two Greek words: methodos - method and logos - doctrine). Studying the laws of human cognitive activity, the methodology develops on this basis methods for its implementation. The most important task of the methodology is the study of the origin, essence, effectiveness and other characteristics of cognitive methods.

5. Objective research methods

One of the main tasks of psychological science was the development of such objective research research methods that would be based on the usual for all other sciences methods of observing the course of a particular type of activity and on the experimental change in the conditions of this activity. They became the experimental method and the method of observing human behavior in natural and experimental conditions.

Observation method. If we study a phenomenon without changing the conditions under which it occurs, then we are talking about simple objective observation. Distinguish between direct and indirect observation. An example of direct observation can be a study of a person’s reaction to a stimulus or observation of the behavior of children in a group if we study the types of contacts. Direct observations are further subdivided into active (scientific) and passive or ordinary (everyday). Repeatedly repeated, everyday observations are accumulated in proverbs, sayings, metaphors, and in this regard are of certain interest for culturological and psychological study. Scientific observation implies a well-defined goal, task, observation conditions. Moreover, if we try to change the conditions or circumstances under which the observation is made, then this will already be an experiment.

Indirect observation is used in situations where we want to use the objective methods to study mental processes that are not amenable to direct observation. For example, to establish the degree of fatigue or tension when a person performs a certain job. The researcher can use the methods of recording physiological processes (electroencephalograms, electromyograms, skin-galvanic reactions, etc.), which themselves do not reveal the features of the course of mental activity, but can reflect the general physiological conditions characterizing the course of the studied processes.

In research practice, objective observations also differ in a number of other ways.

By the nature of the contact - direct observation when the observer and the object of observation are in direct contact and interaction, and indirect when the researcher gets acquainted with the observed subjects indirectly through specially organized documents such as questionnaires, biographies, audio or video recordings, etc.

According to the conditions of observation - field observation, which occurs in everyday life, study or work, and laboratory, when a subject or group is observed in artificial, specially created conditions.

By the nature of the interaction with the object, the included observation is distinguished when the researcher becomes a member of the group, and his presence and behavior become part of the observed situation, and not included (from the outside), i.e. without interaction and establishment of any contacts with the person or group being studied.

They also distinguish between open observation, when the researcher reveals his role to the observed (the disadvantage of this method is the decrease in the natural behavior of the observed subjects), and hidden (incognito) when the group or individual is not informed about the presence of the observer.

The goals are distinguished by observation: purposeful, systematic, approaching experimental conditions in terms of its conditions, however, characterized in that the observed subject is not limited in the freedom of its manifestations, and random, searching, not obeying any rules and not having a clearly defined goal. There are cases when researchers working in a search mode managed to make observations that were not part of their original plans. Thus, major discoveries were made. For example, P. Fress describes how in 1888 a neuropsychiatrist drew attention to the complaints of a patient who had such dry skin that in cold, dry weather she felt sparks slip from her skin and hair. He had the idea to measure the static charge of her skin. As a result, he stated that this charge disappears under the influence of some stimulations. So the psycho-galvanic reflex was discovered. Later it became known as a skin galvanic reaction (RAG). In the same way, IP Pavlov discovered conditioned reflexes during his experiments in the physiology of digestion.

6. The concept of the psyche. Mental reflection activity

Even in ancient times, it was discovered that, along with the material, objective, external, objective worlds, there are non-material, internal, subjective phenomena - human feelings, desires, memories, etc. Each person is endowed with a mental life.

The psyche is defined as the property of highly organized matter to reflect objective reality, and it is advisable to regulate the activity of the subject and his behavior on the basis of the mental image formed at the same time. From this definition it follows that the main functions of the psyche are closely interconnected reflection of objective reality and the regulation of individual behavior and activity.

Mental reflection is neither mirror nor passive - it is an active process associated with the search and selection of methods of action that are appropriate to the prevailing conditions. A feature of mental reflection is subjectivity, i.e. mediation by past experience of a person and his personality. This is expressed, first of all, in the fact that we see one world, but it appears for each of us differently. At the same time, mental reflection makes it possible to build an “internal picture of the world” that is adequate to objective reality, in connection with which it is necessary to note such a property as objectivity. Only through proper reflection is it possible for a person to know the world around him. The criterion of correctness is a practical activity in which the mental reflection is constantly deepened, improved and developed. An important feature of mental reflection is, finally, its anticipatory nature: it makes it possible to anticipate the activities and behavior of a person, which allows you to make decisions with a certain temporal and spatial advance in relation to the future.

7. The origin and evolution of the psyche in phylogenesis

psychology behavior psyche phylogenesis

The origin and development of the psyche in phylogenesis. The main stages of the development of the psyche.

The development of the psyche is a regular change in mental processes over time, expressed in their number and quality structural transformations. The development of the psyche is characterized by a way of accumulating changes, each stage of the psycho once begins with a complication of activity, a new form of psycho reflection makes it possible to further complicate this activity. For an explanation of the occurrence of the psyche in phylogenesis, Aleksey Nikolaevich Leontyev offers a theory of activity. Act - processes that carry out the active attitude of the subject to action. He considered sensitivity to be an objective criterion for the appearance of the psyche, that is, the body's ability to respond to biologically neutral, abiotic properties of the environment (for example, rustling in bushes). Where there is sensitivity, there is the psyche. Sensitivity is irritability to conditions in which assimilation-dissimilation processes are not involved. Irritability is the ability of a living organism to respond to biotic properties of the environment (where assimilation-dissimilation processes are involved).

Factors of influence on the development of phylogenesis (complication of the psyche):

1. External factors - the transition from life in a homogeneous environment to a terrestrial way of life;

2. Internal factors - complications of the anatomical structure - limbs, the appearance and development of the nervous system and brain. The more complex the form of mental reflection, the more complex the behavior.

Stage of development of the psyche: 1 Elementary sensitivity or sensory psyche. DOS sensations are the form of reflection at this stage, and taxis (mechanical movements, movements; innate species experience of animals), instincts, reflexes (if the cortex is formed) are simple mollusks, ringworms; 2. Perceptual psyche - the main form of reflection - objective perception. Includes higher vertebrates: birds and some mammals. Here one can already find an element of the form of thinking, a readiness for learning, for mastering ways of solving problems, remembering them and transferring them to new conditions. The transition to this stage of development is associated with a change in the structure of animal activity: activity is now directed not toward the object itself, but toward those conditions in the cat, this object is objectively given in the environment. For example, a cat goes to feed directly if there is no obstacle and bypasses it immediately if it is. So for the first time an operation appeared — a method that implements the activity with specified conditions. 3. Intelligence, DOS. the form of reflection is the reflection of interdisciplinary connections (visual-effective thinking and generalization). This stage was revealed in primates; they can generalize, but they cannot abstract. DOS the form of behavior is intellectual. Features of intellectual behavior: 1. The ability to solve 2-phase tasks, consisting of a phase: preparation and completion. Leontiev: “Intelligence is where there is a preparation phase” - this means that the preparation phase has no biological meaning ”(monkey, stick, banana). The ability to transfer the found solution to similar conditions without preliminary trials. 3. the presence of insight - insight, the sudden finding of the right solution. 4. The presence of indicative research activities and the use of tools. This periodization was improved by the domestic zoopsychologist Fabry.

He identified two stages in the development of the psyche in phylogenesis:

1. The stage of the sensory psyche, which was divided into the lowest (animals have developed irritability and elementary sensitivity - the simplest) and higher levels (sensations appear, an important organ - the jaw and the ability to form simple reflexes).

2. The stage of the perceptual psyche, which was divided into lower ones (reflection occurs in the form of an image of objects, formation of motor skills - fish, insects), higher (elementary forms of thinking, problem solving, good learning ability - birds, mammals) and the highest (for primates , dogs, dolphins - intelligence phase) level.

8. Human consciousness and its structure. Consciousness and self-awareness of their relationship

Consciousness and self-awareness.

Self-consciousness is defined as “awareness, a person’s assessment of his knowledge, moral character and interests, ideals and motives of behavior, a holistic assessment of himself as a feeling and thinking creature, as an actor” (13).

Self-awareness allows a person to distinguish himself from the world around him. Self-awareness is a kind of reflection, raised to the level of theoretical thinking. The formation of self-consciousness is not possible without a person controlling his actions and actions. Self-consciousness is social in nature, for its formation is impossible without a person relating himself to other people. Self-consciousness is inherent not only to an individual individual, but also to society, when it rises to an understanding of its position in the system of productive relations, its common interests and ideals.

It is important to say that in psychology the process of becoming a human person is inconceivable without the formation of consciousness and self-consciousness, which are integral components of the human person. The whole personality, all its diversity cannot be reduced, of course, to self-awareness, however, one should not be separated from the other either.

The history of self-development is inextricably linked with the development of personality. In psychology, several stages of this development are distinguished.

The first stage, according to psychologists, is connected with “mastering one’s own body, with the occurrence of voluntary movements that are developed in the process of forming the first objective actions”.

The second stage is associated with the start of walking in a child. Mastering the technique of walking, moving, the child develops some independence. At this stage, a person begins to become, to some extent, an independent subject of actions, standing out from the environment. It is here that the personality’s self-awareness is born, the idea of \u200b\u200bone’s Self. At this stage, a person realizes himself only through relationships, interaction with other people. The knowledge of one's Self is realized through the knowledge of other people. Here, self-awareness does not yet exist as a category inherent in the subject himself, i.e., irrespective of the awareness of another person or people.

At the third stage, the formation of self-consciousness goes along with the development of speech, which plays an important role here. A child who has mastered the speech has the ability to direct the actions of others at will and through other people to influence the world. These changes in the behavior of the child lead to a change in his consciousness, behavior and attitude towards other people.

External events (the ability to self-service, the beginning of labor activity) and internal events (the person’s interaction with others, the development of an internal relationship with himself and others) leave a mark on the development of the self. However, the development of personality does not end there.

In a broad sense, everything experienced by a person is part of his personality.

If we keep in mind the narrow meaning, then here to the personality, to the I, can only be attributed what has been experienced, independently understood and mastered by the personality, such as, for example, an idea that was the result of a person’s own activity. Here involuntarily there is a desire to draw a parallel with the philosophy of Rene Descartes, where the first obvious-true position is the thesis "I think," as a subjective-personal experience of the individual.

It will not be superfluous to mention in conclusion that a person is included in social relations and that a person is also determined by that social role, which, reflected in her self-consciousness, is included in I.

So, as you can see, self-awareness is not inherent in man initially, but is a product of the development of the individual

As I already managed to say, when considering a person as a thinking and experiencing something subject comes to mind the philosophy of Descartes, where the central theme, almost the starting point, the beginning of the whole philosophy of Cartesianism is the individual, the subject.

9. The unconscious in the human psyche

Unconscious in the human psyche

Speaking about the structure of the unconscious and the role of the unconscious in the human psyche, it is useful to determine what it, the unconscious, represents. Let us take the generally accepted formulation that the unconscious is a set of mental processes in respect of which there is no conscious control. This includes unconscious motives, the meaning of which is suppressed or supplanted, and stereotypes and behavioral automatisms, the control of which is unnecessary due to their sophistication, and subthreshold perception, not conscious due to the large amount of information. And most importantly - here you can find those reserves of the psyche that open access to hidden resources, making a reality of much of what previously seemed inaccessible.

Structure of the unconscious

For the first time, an experimental study of unconscious processes was carried out by Sigmund Freud, who identified in the structure of the psyche the components of Id (It), Ego (I) and Superego (Super-I). Subsequently, the structure of the unconscious was expanded by Freud's student Carl Gustav Jung, who identified the levels of both the personal and collective unconscious. Also, the concept of the unconscious was supplemented by the psycholinguistic concepts of Jacques Lacan, who suggested that the unconscious is structured like a language. In Soviet science, the concept of the unconscious in the human psyche was represented by D.N. Uznadze, who advanced the theory of "installation" - the Soviet analogue of the concept of the unconscious, as well as the psychophysiological discoveries of IP Pavlova and I.M. Sechenov.

10. The concept of activity. The structure of human activity

If the behavior of animals is entirely determined by the immediate environment, then human activity from the earliest years is governed by the experience of all mankind and the requirements of society. This type of behavior is so specific that a special term is used in psychology to denote it - activity. What are the distinctive psychological features of this special, special human type of activity?

The first of these distinguishing features is that the content of the activity is not entirely determined by the need that generated it. If the need for a motive gives an impetus to activity, stimulates it, then the very forms and content of the activity are determined by social conditions, requirements and experience. So, the motive that makes a person work may be the need for food. However, a person, for example, controls the machine not because it satisfies his hunger, but because it allows him to make the part entrusted to him. The content of his activity is determined not by need, as such, but by his goal - the manufacture of a particular product, which society requires of him. Why a person acts in a certain way does not coincide with what he is acting for. The motives, motives that give rise to his activity, diverge from the immediate goal that governs this activity.

So, the first distinguishing feature of activity is that, generated by need as a source of activity, it is governed by a conscious goal as a regulator of activity. This important feature of activity was noted by K. Marx when he wrote: “A spider performs operations resembling the operations of a weaver, and a bee shame some architects by constructing its wax cells. But even the worst architect from the best bee differs from the very beginning in that than building a cell from wax, he already built it in his head.At the end of the process of labor, a result is obtained that already at the beginning of this process was in the mind of man, that is, ideal.Human not only changes the form of what is given by nature; at the same time that nature is given, he realizes at the same time his conscious goal, which as a law determines the method and nature of his actions and to which he must subordinate his will.

In these words, Marx also notes one more necessary feature of the psychic regulation of activity. For it to be successful, the psyche must reflect its own objective properties of things and determine by them (and not the needs of the body) how to achieve the goal. Finally, the activity must have the ability to control human behavior in such a way as to realize these purposeful actions, namely, to stimulate and maintain activity, which in itself does not immediately satisfy the needs that have arisen, i.e. is not accompanied by direct reinforcement. From this it can be seen that activity is inextricably linked with knowledge and will, relies on them, is impossible without cognitive and volitional processes.

So, activity is an internal (mental) and external (physical) activity of a person, regulated by a conscious goal.

Thus, in order to talk about activity, it is necessary to identify the presence of a conscious goal in human activity. All other aspects of the activity - its motives, methods of implementation, selection and processing of the necessary information - may be realized, or may not be realized. They can also be realized incompletely and even incorrectly. For example, a preschooler rarely realizes the needs that push him to play, while a younger schoolchild is motivated by his learning activities. Incomplete, and most often wrong, an undisciplined teenager realizes the true motives of his actions. And adults sometimes take for granted secondary, “masking,” motives that consciousness “throws up” to them to justify erroneous and unworthy actions or deeds.

Not only motives, but also many thought processes that led to the choice of particular activity plans are far from fully understood by man. As for the ways of carrying out activities, most of them are usually regulated in addition to consciousness. An example of this is any habitual action: walking, speaking, writing, driving, playing a musical instrument, etc.

The degree and completeness of reflection of all these aspects of activity in the mind determines the level of awareness of the corresponding activity.

Whatever the level of awareness of the activity, awareness of the goal always remains a necessary attribute of it. In cases where this symptom is absent, there is no activity in the human sense of the word, but impulsive behavior takes place. Unlike activity, impulsive behavior is driven directly by needs and emotions. It expresses only the affects and drives of the individual and therefore often has a selfish, antisocial character. Thus, a person who is blinded by anger or irresistible passion acts impulsively.

Impulsive behavior does not mean unconsciousness. But at the same time, only his personal motive is recognized and regulates the behavior, and not his social content embodied in the goal.

Structure of activities

Activity is that form of an active attitude towards reality, through which a real connection is established between a person and the world around him. Through activity, a person acts on nature, things, other people. Realizing and revealing his inner properties in activity, he acts in relation to things as a subject, and to people - as a person. Experiencing, in turn, their response, he discovers in this way the true, objective, essential properties of people, things, nature and society. Things appear before him as objects, and people as individuals.

Actions and movements

To detect the severity of the stone, it is necessary to raise it, and to reveal the reliability of the parachute, it is necessary to descend from it on the plane. Raising a stone and descending by parachute, a person through activity reveals their real properties. He can replace these real actions with symbolic ones - say “the stone is heavy” or calculate the speed and trajectory of descent by parachute according to the corresponding formula. But in the beginning is always the case, practical activity. In this activity, not only the properties of the stone or parachute are discovered, but also the person himself (for which he lifted the stone, used a parachute, etc.). Practice determines and discovers what a person knows and what does not know, what he sees in the world and what he does not see, what he chooses and what he rejects. In other words, it determines and at the same time discovers the content of the human psyche and its mechanisms.

The purpose for which the activity is directed is, as a rule, more or less distant. Therefore, its achievement consists of a consistent solution by a person of a number of particular tasks that confront him as he moves towards this goal. So, for example, the labor activity of the worker as a whole is aimed at achieving a common goal - the production of certain products at the level of the required quality and given labor productivity. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to successfully resolve certain current work tasks at each time interval, for example, to sharpen a part, mark the workpiece, load raw materials into the apparatus, etc. Each such relatively completed activity element aimed at performing one simple current task is called an action .

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The main directions of modern psychology of the West and the problems of psychology of interpersonal communication. The structure of the psyche according to Sigmund Freud. The model of the mental structure of personality in the analytical psychology of Carl Jung. The dynamics of human behavior.

PsychologyWith Greek. psyche- soul, logos- doctrine, science, studies the patterns of occurrence, development and functioning of mental processes, conditions, personality traits involved in a particular activity, patterns of development and functioning of the psyche as a special form of life.

psychology is the science of the most complex concept that so far is known to mankind. It deals with a property of highly organized matter called the psyche;

♦ Psychology is a relatively young science. Conventionally, its scientific design is associated with 1879, when the German psychologist W. Wundt created the world's first Laboratory of Experimental Psychology at the University of Leipzig, organized the release of a psychological journal, launched international psychological congresses, and established an international school of professional psychologists. All this provided an opportunity to form a global organizational structure of psychological science;

♦ Psychology has a unique practical value for any person, as it allows you to more deeply know yourself, your abilities, strengths and weaknesses, and therefore, change yourself, manage your mental functions, actions and your behavior, better understand other people and interact with them; it is necessary for parents and teachers, as well as for every business person, to make responsible decisions, taking into account the psychological state of colleagues and partners.

Subjectpsychology are: the psyche, its mechanisms and laws as a specific form of reflection of reality, the formation of psychological characteristics of a person as a conscious subject of activity. In the history of science, there are different ideas about the subject of psychology:

♦ soulas a subject of psychology, was recognized by all researchers until the beginning of the 17th century, before the basic ideas, and then the first system of psychology of the modern type, developed. The ideas about the soul were both idealistic and materialistic. The most interesting work of this direction seems to be a treatise by R. Descartes “Passion of the soul”;

♦ in the XVIII century. place of soul took phenomena of consciousnessthat is, the phenomena that a person actually observes in relation to himself are thoughts, desires, feelings, memories, known to everyone from personal experience. The founder of this understanding can be considered J. Locke;

♦ at the beginning of the XX century. behaviorism or behavioral psychology appeared and became widespread, the subject of which was behavior;

♦ according to the teachings of Z. Freud, human actions are guided by deep motives that elude clear consciousness. These deep impulsesaccording to psychologists - followers of 3. Freud, and should be the subject of psychological science;

♦ information processing processesand results of these processesas a subject of psychology consider cognitive psychology and gestalt psychology;

♦ personal experience of a personthe subject of psychology considers humanistic psychology.

As the main facility psychology advocates social subjects, their vital connections and relationships, as well as subjective and objective factors that promote or impede their achievement of the pinnacles in life and creative activity.

The main taskspsychology:

- the study of mechanisms, laws, qualitative features of the manifestation and development of mental phenomena;

- the study of the nature and conditions of the formation of mental characteristics of the personality at different stages of its development and in various conditions;

- the use of acquired knowledge in various fields of practical activity.

Before talking about methods of psychology it is necessary to give a definition and a brief description of the concepts “methodology”, “method” and “methodology”.

Methodology- the most general system of principles and methods of organizing scientific research, which determines the methods of achieving and building theoretical knowledge, as well as the methods of organizing practical activities. The methodology is the basis for the construction of research, reflects the worldview of the researcher, his philosophical position and views.

Method- this is a combination of more private, specific techniques, means, methods by which they obtain the information necessary to build a scientific theory and make practical recommendations.

Any method is implemented in a specific methodologywhich is a set of rules for a specific study, describes a set of tools and objects used in specific circumstances, and also regulates the sequence of actions of the researcher. In psychology, a specific technique takes into account the sex, age, ethnic, religious, professional affiliation of the subject.

The phenomena studied by psychology are so complex and diverse, so difficult for scientific knowledge, that throughout the development of psychological science, its success depended directly on the degree of perfection of the applied research methods. Psychology became an independent science only in the middle of the XIX century. Therefore, it very often relies on the methods of other sciences - philosophy, mathematics, physics, physiology, medicine, philology, history. In addition, in psychology they use methods of modern sciences, such as computer science, cybernetics.

All methods of psychology can be divided into three groups: 1) objective methods of psychology; 2) methods for describing and understanding human psychology; 3) methods of psychological practice. Objective methods of psychology

The methodological basis of the objective methods of psychology is the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity. The following methods belong to this group:

Observation (continuous, selective);

Experiment (laboratory, natural, formative);

Testing (achievements, abilities, professional suitability, etc.);

Analysis of activity products (graphological, content analysis, analysis of drawings, etc.);

Survey (questionnaires, interviews, interviews);

Mathematical modeling and statistical analysis.

Observation- this is a deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of the external behavior of a person with a view to its subsequent analysis and explanation. Observation should be selective, planned and systematic, that is, based on a clearly defined goal, highlight a specific fragment of the reality being studied, be built on the basis of the plan and be carried out over a certain period of time.

Experiment- one of the main methods of psychology. Psychology acquired the status of an independent science thanks to the advent of experimental methods. S. L. Rubinstein identifies four main features of the experiment: 1) in the experiment, the researcher himself causes the phenomenon he studies, in contrast to observation, in which the observer cannot actively intervene in the situation; 2) the experimenter can vary, change the flow conditions and manifestations of the studied process; 3) in an experiment, it is possible to alternately exclude individual conditions (variables) in order to establish regular relationships that determine the process under study; 4) the experiment also allows you to vary the quantitative ratio of conditions, allows mathematical processing of the data obtained in the study.

There are three types of experiment: laboratory, natural and formative.

Laboratory experimentcarried out in specially created and controlled conditions, usually with the use of special equipment and instruments.

Idea of \u200b\u200bholding natural experimentbelongs to the domestic psychologist A.F. Lazursky (1874-1917). Its essence lies in the fact that the researcher has an effect on the subjects in the usual conditions of their activity. Subjects often do not suspect that they are participating in an experiment. For example, the teacher has the ability to vary the content, forms, teaching methods in parallel classes or student groups and compare the results.

Formative experiment- This is a research method in a specially organized experimental pedagogical process. It is also called the transformative, creative, educational method or the psychological and pedagogical method of active formation of the psyche. A number of pedagogical techniques are based on it, for example, immersion in a problem, group training. The results of the experiment allow us to confirm, clarify or reject the previously developed model of the impact on an individual or group of people.

Testing (From lat. Test - test, check) - method of psychological diagnostics using standardized questions and tasks (tests) having a specific scale of values. It is used to recognize or evaluate the states, features, characteristics of a particular person, group of people, one or another mental function, etc. The result of the test is evaluated in quantitative terms. Tests have various kinds of norms-scales of values: age, social, etc. An individual indicator of the test is related to its norm. There is a special area of \u200b\u200bpsychology - testology, which is the theory of the application and creation of tests. The development of a scientifically based psychological test at present is a laborious and lengthy task.

Product Analysisproceeds from the general premise of the connection of internal mental processes and external forms of behavior and activity. Studying the objective products of activity, we can draw conclusions about the psychological characteristics of its subject or subjects. A specific form of the method of analyzing performance is graphology. Psychologists have established that the characteristics of handwriting are associated with certain psychological properties of the author of the letter; they developed the norms and techniques of psychological analysis of handwriting. Content analysis allows you to identify and evaluate the specific characteristics of literary, scientific, journalistic texts, and then determine the psychological characteristics of the author based on them.

Interviewused in psychology in the form of questionnaires and conversations (or interviews). Sources of information in the survey are written or oral judgments of the individual. To obtain reliable information, special questionnaires are created, the questions in which are arranged in a certain order, grouped in separate blocks, etc. When questioning, the survey is conducted in writing using the questionnaire. The advantage of this method is that a group of people can simultaneously participate in such a survey, and the data obtained during the survey can be statistically processed and analyzed. During the conversation, the researcher interacts directly with the respondent (or the interviewee). The most important condition for the success of the conversation is to establish contact between them, to create a trusting atmosphere of communication. The researcher should compel the interviewee to him, cause him to be frank.

Mathematical methodit is used in psychology not as an independent one, but is included as an auxiliary means of increasing the reliability, objectivity, and accuracy of the data obtained. Row statistical methodswas created specifically to test the quality of psychological tests.