Chemistry has invaded human life since ancient times and continues to provide him with diverse assistance even now. Organic chemistry is especially important, considering organic compounds - saturated, unsaturated cyclic, aromatic and heterocyclic. Medicinal substances have been known since very ancient times. For example, in Ancient Rus', male fern, poppy and other plants were used as medicine. And until now, 25-30% of various decoctions, tinctures and extracts of plant and animal organisms are used as medicines. Recently, biology, medical science and practice are increasingly using the achievements of modern chemistry. A huge number of medicinal compounds are supplied by chemists, and new advances have been made in the field of drug chemistry in recent years. From the history:

All medicinal substances can be divided into two large groups: inorganic and organic, inorganic and organic. Both are obtained from natural raw materials and synthetically. The raw materials for the production of inorganic preparations are rocks, ores, gases, water from lakes and seas, and chemical waste. The raw materials for the synthesis of organic drugs are natural gas, oil, coal, shale and wood. Oil and gas are a valuable source of raw materials for the synthesis of hydrocarbons, which are intermediate products in the production of organic substances and medicines. Petroleum jelly, petroleum jelly, and paraffin obtained from petroleum are used in medical practice.

Classification of medicinal substances 1. sleeping pills and sedatives (sedatives); 2. cardiovascular; 3. analgesic (painkillers), antipyretic and anti-inflammatory; 4. antimicrobial (antibiotics, sulfonamide drugs, etc.); 5. local anesthetics; 6. antiseptic; 7. diuretic; 8. hormones; 9. vitamins, etc.

Sleeping pills Substances that induce sleep belong to different classes, but the best known are derivatives of barbituric acid. Barbituric acid is formed by the reaction of urea with malonic acid. Its derivatives are called barbiturates. All barbiturates depress the nervous system. Amytal has a wide range of sedative effects. In some patients, this drug relieves inhibitions associated with painful, deeply buried memories. The human body becomes accustomed to barbiturates through frequent use as sedatives and sleep aids, so people using barbiturates find that they need increasingly larger doses. Demidrol is widely used as a sedative and hypnotic. It is not a barbiturate, but belongs to ethers. Demidrol is an active antihistamine. It has a local anesthetic effect, but is mainly used in the treatment of allergic diseases.

Alkaloids It is enough for 0.005 mg of LSD to enter the human brain to cause hallucinations. Many alkaloids belong to poisons and drugs. This is a good pain reliever, but with prolonged use of morphine, a person develops an addiction to it, and the body requires increasingly larger doses of the drug.

Atropine is an optically inactive form of hyoscyamine, widely used in medicine as an effective antidote for poisoning with anticholinesterase substances, such as physostigmine and organophosphate insecticides. It effectively relieves bronchospasms, dilates the pupil, etc. Toxic doses cause visual impairment, suppression of salivation, vasodilation, hyperpyrexia (fever), agitation and delirium (stupidity). Morphine is the most important opium alkaloid. It is extracted from the dried milky sap that emerges from cuts on the immature head of the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). Morphine contains phenolic and alcohol hydroxyl groups. It is a narcotic analgesic and is used for pain relief. However, long-term use of it leads to addiction and causes nausea, vomiting, and constipation.

Quinidine Quinidine, a diastereomer of quinine, is found in cinchona bark (e.g., Cinchona succirubra) in amounts ranging from 0.25 to 1.25%. It is an antiarrhythmic heart medication used to prevent atrial fibrillation (atrial fibrillation). Caffeine Caffeine is found in coffee, tea, cocoa, cola and mate (Paraguayan tea). It is consumed in many drinks by millions of people around the world. Caffeine is usually extracted from tea, tea dust, tea waste, or isolated by sublimation when roasting coffee. It can also be synthesized from theobromine. Caffeine has a stimulating effect on the central nervous and cardiovascular systems and is used to stimulate cardiac activity, respiration, and as an antidote for poisoning with morphine and barbiturates. It is part of products with the trade names empirin, fiorinol, cafergot, vigrain.

Cocaine is obtained from coca leaves (Erythroxylum coca) or synthesized from ecgonine, isolated from plant materials. This is a powerful local anesthetic and is part of Brompton's medicine, which is used to relieve the severe pain that accompanies the final stages of cancer. Its stimulating effect on the central nervous system reduces the sedation and weakening of breathing from the use of morphine or methadone, used as narcotic analgesics in Brompton's mixture. Cocaine addiction occurs very quickly. It is included in the list of substances subject to particularly careful control. Vinblastine and vincristine. Periwinkle Vinblastine and Vincristine. Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus, formerly known as Vinca rosea) contains many complex alkaloids, including the powerful anticancer agents vinblastine and vincristine. Since the concentration of active alkaloids in periwinkle is negligible, huge quantities of plant raw materials are required for their industrial production. So, to isolate 1 g of vincristine, you need to process 500 kg of roots. Vinblastine is used to treat various forms of cancer and is especially effective in Hodgkin's disease (lymphogranulomatosis) and chorionic carcinoma. Vincristine is used to treat acute leukemia, and in combination with other drugs, lymphogranulomatosis.

Nicotine. Nicotine. This liquid alkaloid was isolated in its pure form in 1828 by Posselt and Reimann. Its main source is tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), the annual production of leaves of which exceeds 5 million tons. Nicotine is also found in various types of clubmoss, horsetail and some other plants. When smoking, most of the nicotine is destroyed or evaporated. Nicotine is a strong poison. In small quantities it stimulates breathing, but in large quantities it suppresses impulse transmission in the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve nodes. Death occurs from cessation of breathing. Nicotine has a strong effect on the cardiovascular system, causing peripheral vasoconstriction, tachycardia, and an increase in systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Nicotine (usually in the form of sulfate) is used as an insecticide in aerosols and powders. Lobeline Lobeline is found in lobelia (Lobelia inflata) and has effects similar to nicotine. For this reason, it is included in tablets that make it easier to quit smoking. In small doses it can stimulate breathing, and therefore it is used in cases of suffocation, gas poisoning, i.e. when you need to stimulate breathing. Large doses, on the contrary, paralyze breathing.

Analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drugs Salicylic acid Aspirin A large group of drugs are derivatives of salicylic acid. Salicylic acid is a strong disinfectant. Its sodium salt is used as an analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and in the treatment of rheumatism. Of the derivatives of salicylic acid, the most famous is its ester - acetylsalicylic acid, or aspirin. Aspirin is an artificially created molecule and does not occur in nature. When introduced into the body, acetylsalicylic acid does not change in the stomach, but in the intestine, under the influence of an alkaline environment, it disintegrates, forming anions of two acids - salicylic and acetic. Anions enter the blood and are transported by it to various tissues.

Salol Salol is an ester of salicylic acid with phenol (phenyl salicylate) has disinfectant, antiseptic properties and is used for intestinal diseases. Common antipyretic and analgesic drugs are Analgin, phenylmethylpyrazolone derivatives - amidopyrine and analgin. Analgin has low toxicity and good therapeutic properties.

Local anesthetics For centuries, the dominant place in the arsenal of painkillers has been occupied by morphine, the main active component of opium. It was used back in those times to which the first written sources that reached us date back to. The main disadvantages of morphine are the occurrence of a painful addiction to it and respiratory depression. Well-known morphine derivatives are codeine and heroin. Synthetic anesthetic (painkiller) substances obtained by simplifying the structure of cocaine are of great practical importance. These include anesthesin, novocaine, dicaine.

Antimicrobial agents Drugs in this group have a wide spectrum of antimicrobial action, affecting most bacteria (including Proteus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa), yeast-like fungi and protozoal infections. They are also effective in the treatment of intestinal infections: dysentery, salmonellosis, food toxic infections, enzymatic dyspepsia, etc. 1. 8-hydroxyquinoline derivatives 2. Naphthyridine derivatives - pyridopyridines 3. Derivative groups of pyridopyrimidine and 8-hydroxyquinoline 4. Fluoroquinolone preparations 5. Quinoxaline derivatives 6 Nitrofuran derivatives

Fluoroquinolones Fluoroquinolones are chemically similar to oxolinic acid, but unlike it they have a broad antimicrobial effect and are effective not only against urinary tract infections, but also against other diseases. The mechanism of antimicrobial action of drugs in this group is associated mainly with inhibition of protein synthesis. Quinoxaline derivatives Quinoxaline derivatives - drugs of this group have pronounced antibacterial activity, a wide spectrum of antimicrobial action, and are effective against infections caused by Escherichia coli and dysentery coli, salmonella, staphylococci and other pathogenic microorganisms. Quinoxaline derivatives are prescribed only in hospital settings under the close supervision of a physician. Nitrofurans are drugs similar in action to broad-spectrum antibiotics. They are active against gram-positive and gram-negative flora; E. coli and dysentery bacilli, paratyphoid pathogens, salmonella, Vibrio cholerae, Giardia, Trichomonas, etc. are sensitive to them. The mechanism of antimicrobial action is associated with respiratory depression of microorganisms (blockade of dehydrogenases involved in redox processes).

Antibiotics Typically, an antibiotic is a substance synthesized by one microorganism and capable of preventing the development of another microorganism. In 1929, an accident allowed the English bacteriologist Alexander Fleming to observe the antimicrobial activity of penicillin for the first time. Staphylococcus cultures that were grown in a nutrient medium were accidentally infected with green mold. Fleming noticed that the staphylococcal bacilli found adjacent to the mold were being destroyed. In 1940, it was possible to isolate the chemical compound that the fungus produced. It was called penicillin. PENICILLIN (white dot). Its inhibitory effect (dark ring) on ​​the growth of a staphylococcal colony (stripes) is visible

Currently, about 2000 antibiotics have been described, but only about 3% of them find practical use, the rest turned out to be toxic. Antibiotics have very high biological activity. They belong to different classes of compounds with small molecular weight. Antibiotics differ in their chemical structure and mechanism of action on harmful microorganisms. For example, it is known that penicillin prevents bacteria from producing substances from which they build their cell walls. A damaged or missing cell wall can cause the bacterial cell to rupture and release its contents into the surrounding area. This may also allow antibodies to penetrate the bacteria and destroy it. Penicillin is effective only against gram-positive bacteria. Streptomycin is effective against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. A significant disadvantage of streptomycin is that bacteria get used to it extremely quickly; in addition, the drug causes side effects: allergies, dizziness, etc. Unfortunately, bacteria gradually adapt to antibiotics and therefore microbiologists are constantly faced with the task of creating new antibiotics.

PRODUCTION OF ANTIBIOTICS (USING THE EXAMPLE OF TERRAMYCIN) 1. Spores of carefully selected, highly productive strains of mold fungi are germinated in a flask. 2. Since the amount of mold grown in the flask is small, it continues to be grown in a larger container - a small fermenter. 3. Meanwhile, a large fermenter is filled with a sterile nutrient medium containing in the required ratio the substances necessary for mold growth. 4. Since mold requires oxygen to grow, sterile air is passed through the fermenter 5. The contents of the small fermenter are transferred to the production fermenter. Any other additives are pre-sterilized to avoid microbial contamination that could reduce the yield of the antibiotic. 6. When the antibiotic output reaches its maximum, the contents of the fermenter are fed to a rotating filter, where the mold is filtered out. 7. The filtrate containing terramycin enters a container where chemical reagents are added that precipitate the antibiotic. 9. The Terramycin precipitate is further processed to remove remaining impurities. 8. The mixture is then filtered under pressure, separating the partially purified precipitated antibiotic from the impurities remaining in the solution. 10. The purified crystalline antibiotic is centrifuged and dried. 11. Now it can be packaged and used.

Chemistry and life.

1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..3 pp.

2. From history………………………………………………………………………………………...4 pages.

3. Modern chemistry and medicine………………………………………………... 5-8 pp.

4. Chemistry and pharmacology………………………………………………………..9-12 pp.

5. Conclusion………………………………………………………………...13-14 pp.

6. List of references………………………………………………………………..15 pages.

Introduction

Modern human society lives and continues to develop, actively using the achievements of science and technology, and it is almost unthinkable to stop on this path or go back, refusing to use the knowledge about the world around us that humanity already possesses. Science deals with the accumulation of this knowledge, the search for patterns in it and its application in practice. It is common for a person, as an object of cognition, to divide and classify the subject of his cognition (probably for ease of research) into many categories and groups; Likewise, science at one time was divided into several large classes: natural sciences, exact sciences, social sciences, human sciences, etc. Each of these classes is divided, in turn, into subclasses, etc. and so on.

But among this variety of sciences there are “leader” sciences and sciences "lagging behind"" . One of the modern sciences "leaders" are biology, chemistry and medicine.

"The second half of our century is marked by the rapid progress of biological knowledge and its applications in various spheres of life of modern society. In essence, human interest in living oh nature never faded away, but only the last ten yat years have made it possible to come closer to understanding the amazing secrets of life and on this basis to take a decisive step in using the latest biological discoveries" (Vice President of the USSR Academy of Sciences Yu.A. Ovchinnikov, 1987).

The fifties marked the beginning of a renaissance in biology, which “managed to look inside the cell and understand the cular mechanisms of birth and development of organisms"

There is an opinion that o The 21st century will become the century of biology, and all other sciences will fade into the background. The prediction of the great modern physicist came true n ity N . Bora, who in the 50s repeatedly stated, that in the near future the most intensive penetration into the secrets of nature will become the prerogative not of physics, but of biology. Most b Modern natural science literature is, to one degree or another, devoted to the study of living nature. Dozens of sciences are now studying biological problems. Sciences related to the implementation of the latest biological discoveries are also very productive.

It can be said without exaggeration that Many of us owe our health and even our lives to one of these branches of biology. We are talking about medicine, which in recent years is moving not only to the use of new generation drugs and the use of new materials in practice, but to such treatment methods that make it possible to influence the disease at its very beginning, or even before it begins! This became possible in connection with the study of the molecular mechanisms of the development of many diseases and the correction of disorders not by the usual method of introducing missing substances into the body, but by influencing the natural processes of bioregulation (using special bioregulators or at the genetic level). Solving many of the key problems of our time, such as food production, Many drugs and other substances are associated with the active introduction of biotechnologies into life.

Such tangible progress in biology would not have been possible without its active interaction with other sciences. But the paradox of the modern state of science is that many studies find themselves “at the intersection of sciences,” To solve the problem productively, it is necessary to attract scientists from various specialties; Moreover, many scientists are now, In the age of narrow specialization, people are forced to master related specialties, and many modern studies can hardly be attributed to any one branch of science. When solving biological problems, ideas and methods of biology are closely intertwined, chemistry, physics, mathematics and other fields of knowledge. It is the problem of interaction between chemistry and biological disciplines and their applications in medicine that will interest us.

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From the history.

A doctor without a good knowledge of chemistry

With cannot be perfect.

M. V. Lomo n osov

It is necessary to emphasize the special connection between chemistry and medicine. This connection arose a long time ago. Back in the 16th century. The medical direction in chemistry has become widely developed, the founder of which was the Swiss physician Paracelsus (1493-1541). “The purpose of chemistry is... to make medicine,” he wrote. Paracelsus believed that everything material, including a living organism, consists of three principles that are in different proportions: salt (body), mercury (soul) and sulfur (spirit). Diseases result from a deficiency in the body of one of the these are quiet "elements".

Consequently, diseases can be treated by introducing the missing “element” into the body. Success a number of proposed Paracelsus new methods of treatment based on the use of inorganic compounds (instead of previously used organic extracts) prompted many doctors to join his school and become seriously interested in chemistry.

This period in the development of chemistry and medicine (XVI-XVIII centuries) is known as iatrochemistry. One of the most prominent representatives of the new trend in chemistry was the German chemist Johann Rudolf Glauber (1604-1668). A doctor by training, he was involved in the development and improvement of methods for producing various chemicals. Glauber developed a method for producing hydrochloric acid by the action of sulfuric acid on table salt. Having carefully studied the residue obtained after the distillation of acids (sodium sulfate), Glauber determined that this substance has a strong laxative effect. He called this substance "amazing salt"" (s al mirabile) and considered it a panacea, almost uh the lixir of life. Contemporaries Glauber They called this salt Glauber's salt, and this name has survived to this day. Glauber began producing this salt and a number of other, in his opinion, valuable medicines and achieved success in this field.

Iatrochemistry played an important role in the fight against the dogmas of medieval scholastic medicine. She not only tried to provide a chemical basis for the theory of humoral pathology, but also contributed to the empirical progress of chemistry. Iatrochemists introduced the concepts of acidity and alkalinity, discovered many new compounds, and began to carry out the first reproducible (although not always methodologically correct) experiments.

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Modern chemistry and medicine.

Chemists second half of the 20th century continued the work of their ancestors and are very A actively engaged in wildlife research. This thesis can be supported by at least the fact that out of 39 Nobel Prizes in chemistry, awarded in the last 20 years (1977- 1 996), 21 prizes (more than half! and there are many branches of chemistry) were received for the solution of chemical- biological problems.

This is not surprising, because a living cell is a real kingdom of large and small molecules that continuously interact, form and disintegrate... About 100,000 processes take place in the human body, each of them representing a combination of various chemical transformations. In one cell of the body can occur approximately 2000 reactions. All these processes are carried out using comparison those flax of a small number of organic and inorganic compounds. Modern chemistry is characterized by a transition to the study of complexelementorganiccompounds consisting of inorganic and organic residues. Inorganic parts are represented by water and ions of various metals, halogens and phosphorus (mainly), organic parts are represented by proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids and a fairly extensive group of low-molecular bioregulators, such as hormones, vi amines, antibiotics, prostaglandins, alkaloids, reg growth stimulators, etc.

For modern doctors and pharmacists, the study of inorganic chemistry is also of great importance, since many drugs are inorganic in nature. Therefore, physicians must clearly know their properties: solubility, mechanical strength, reactivity, impact on humans and the environment.

Modern medicine widely studies the relationship between the content of chemical elements in the body and the occurrence and development of various diseases. It turned out that the body reacts especially sensitively to changes in the concentration of microelements in it, i.e. elements present in the body in quantities less than 1 g per 70 kg of human body weight. These elements include copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, cobalt, iron, nickel.

Of nonmetalloids in living systems actively always A You can find atoms of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus and sulfur in organic compounds and atoms of halogens and boron both in the form of ions and in organic particles. Deviations in the content of most of these elements in living organisms often lead to quite severe metabolic disorders.

Most diseases are caused by deviations in the concentrations of some substance from the norm. This is due to the fact that a huge number of chemical transformations inside a living cell occur in several stages, and many substances are not important to the cell in themselves, they are only intermediaries in a chain of complex reactions; but if any link is broken, then the whole chain often stops fulfilling its purpose as a result transfer function; stops n oh rmal slave ota cells for synthesis necessary substances.

It has been proven that with a change in concentration zinc is associated with the course of cancer, cobalt and manganese - diseases of the heart muscle, nickel - blood clotting processes. Determining the concentration of these elements in the blood sometimes makes it possible to detect the early stages of various diseases. Thus, changes in the concentration of zinc in the blood serum are associated with the course of diseases of the liver and spleen, and the concentrations of cobalt and chromium are associated with some cardiovascular diseases.

In maintaining normal life T The body's health plays a very important role organic molecules. They can be divided according to the principles inherent in their design into three groups:

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biological macromolecules (proteins, nucleic acids and their complexes), oligomers (nucleotides, lipids, peptides etc.) and monomers (hormones, antibiotics, vitamins and many others substances).

For chemistry, it is especially important to establish connections between I’m waiting for the structure of the substance and its properties, in particular, biological effect. For this purpose, many modern methods are used, which are part of the arsenal of physics and organic chemistry., mathematics and biology.

In modern science, many new sciences have arisen on the border of chemistry and biology, which differ in the methods used, goals and objects of study. All these sciences are usually united under the term “physico-chemical biology”. This direction includes:

a) chemistry of natural compounds (bioorganic and bioinorganic chemistry bioorganic chemistry and inorganic biochemistry respectively);

b) biochemistry;

c) biophysics;

d) molecular biology;

d) molecular genetics;

e) pharmacology and molecular pharmacology

and many related disciplines. Much of modern biological research

Chemical and physicochemical methods are actively used. Progress in such branches of biology as cytology, immunology and histology was directly related to the development of chemical methods for the isolation and analysis of substances. Even such a classical “purely biological” science as physiology is increasingly using the achievements of chemistry and biochemistry. In the USA, the National Institutes of Health ( National Institutes of Health USA) currently finance areas of medical science related to purely physiological research, much less than biochemical ones, including physiology

" unpromising and outdated" science. Such, sciences that seem exotic at first glance, such as molecular physiology, molecules l clear epidemiology, etc. . New types of biomedical analyzes have appeared, in particular , immunoenzymean analysis that can help determine the presence of diseases such as AIDS and hepatitis; the use of new chemistry methods and increased sensitivity of old methods now makes it possible to determine many important substances without w the integrity of the patient’s skin, a drop of saliva, sweat or other biological fluid.

So , What do all the above sciences do?, which are different branches of physical and chemical biology?

The basis of the chemistry of natural compounds was traditional organic chemistry, which was initially considered as the chemistry of substances found in living nature. Modern organic chemistry deals with all compounds that have carbon (or substituted) heteroanalogscarbon) chains, and bioorganic chemistry, which studies natural compounds, has become a separate branch of science. The chemistry of natural compounds arose in the mid-19th century, when some fats, sugars and amino acids were synthesized (this is due to the work M. Berthelot, F. Velera, A. Butlerova, F. Kekule, etc.).

The first protein-like polypeptides were created at the beginning of our century, at the same time E. Fisher, together with other researchers, contributed to the study of Sakharov. The development of research on the chemistry of natural substances continued at an increasing pace until the middle of the 20th century. Following alkaloids, terpenes and vitamins, this science began to study steroids, growth substances, antibiotics, prostaglandins and other low molecular weight bioregulators. Along with them, the chemistry of natural compounds studies biopolymers bio-oligomers (nucleic acids, proteins,nucleoproteins, glycoproteins, lipoproteins, glycolipids and etc.). Basic arse n al research methods are organic methods

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chemistry, however, to solve structural problems - functional tasks are actively involved and

a variety of physical, physicochemical, mathematical and biological methods. The main problems solved by the chemistry of natural compounds are:

a) isolation of the studied compounds in an individual state using crystallization, distillation, various types of chromatography, electrophoresis, ultrafiltration, ultra-crystalline, counter-currentdistributions, etc.. ;

b) establishing a structure, including spatial structure, based on organic and physical organic chemistry approaches using mass spectroscopy,various types of optical spectroscopy(IR, UV, laser, etc.),X-ray diffractionanalysis of nuclear magnetic resonance, electron paramagnetic resonance, optical rotation dispersion and circular dichroism, fast kinetics methods, etc.;

c) chemical synthesis and chemical modification of the studied compounds, including complete synthesis, synthesis of analogues and derivatives, in order to confirm the structure, clarify the relationship between structure and biological function, and obtain drugs valuable for practical use;

d) biological testing of the obtained compounds in vitro and in vivo.

The largest achievements in the chemistry of natural compounds were the deciphering of the structure and synthesis of biologically important alkaloids, steroids and vitamins, full chemical syn without some peptides, prostaglandins, penicillins, vitamins, chlorophyll and other compounds; the structures of many proteins have been established, nucleotide sequences of the set n ov, etc. and so on.

The emergence of the science of biochemistry is usually associated with the discovery of the phenomenon of enzymatic catalysis and the biological enzyme catalysts themselves, the first of which were identified and isolated in the crystalline state in 20xtwentiescenturies. Biochemistry studies chemical processes occurring directly in living organisms and uses chemical methods in the study of biological processes. The major events in biochemistry were the establishment of the central role ATP in energy metabolism, elucidation of the chemical mechanisms of photosynthesis, respiration and muscle contraction, discovery transamination,establishing the mechanism of transport of substances through

biological membranes, etc.

Molecular bi ology arose in the early 50s, when J.Watson and F.Crick deciphered the structure of DNA, which made it possible to begin studying the ways of storing and implementing hereditary information.

Major Molecular Achievements ardent biology discovery of the genetic code, mechanism of protein biosynthesis in ribosomes, fundamentals of the functioning of the oxygen carrier hemoglobin.

The next step on this path was the emergence of molecular genetics, which studies the mechanisms of operation of units of hereditary information of genes at the molecular level. One of the most relevant the problems of molecular genetics are the establishment of pathways for regulating gene expression, transferring a gene from an active state to an inactive state and vice versa; regulation of transcription and translation processes. A practical application of molecular genetics was the development from ka methods of genetic engineering and gene therapy, which make it possible to modify the hereditary information stored in a living cell in such a way that the necessary substances will be synthesized inside the cell itself, which makes it possible to obtain many valuable compounds biotechnologically, as well as normalize the balance of substances disturbed during illness. The essence of genetic engineering is cutting the DNA molecule into separate fragments, h t o is achieved with the help of enzymes and chemical reagents, followed by connection; this operation is performed for the purpose of inserting into evolutionarily well-functioning chain nucleotides new gene fragment, responsible for the synthesis of what we need

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substances, together with the so-called regulators of DNA sections, securing the asset n ost " own "gene. Many drugs are already produced using genetic engineering, predominantly protein in nature: insulin, interferon, somatotropin, etc.

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Chemistry and pharmacology.

Z knowledge of the basic laws and regulations of chemistry is necessary for

studying special pharmaceutical disciplines: technology of dosage forms, pharmacokinesim and especially pharmaceutical chemistry.

Pharmacology is the science of medicines, the action of various chemical compounds on living organisms, about methods of introducing drugs into organisms and about the interaction of drugs between d at home. Molecular pharmacology studies the behavior of drug molecules inside a cell, the transport of these molecules across membranes, etc.. Man began to use medicinal substances a very long time ago, several thousand years ago. Ancient medicine was based almost entirely on medicinal plants, an approach that has retained its appeal until our days. Many modern medicines contain substances of plant origin or chemical

synthesized compounds identical to those found in medicinal plants. One of the earliest treatises on medicines that has come down to us was written by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates in the 4th century BC.

The beginnings of the chemistry of medicinal substances appeared during the period of the dominance of alchemy. Modern chemotherapy dates back to the beginning of the 20th century from the works of P. Ehrlich on antimalarials and arsenic acid derivatives. Currently n Tens and hundreds of thousands of medicinal substances have been identified, and the search for them continues. But the number of actively used drugs is, of course, much smaller. Not all substances synthesized as p from of a new medicinal substance are being used in practice. Many previously widely used drugs are being forced out of use due to the fact that more effective analogues appear that act on the cause of the disease much more selectively and have fewer contraindications and side effects. In 1995, over 3 thousand types of medicinal products containing about 2 thousand different chemical substances of synthetic origin were approved for use in Russia.. One of the major successes of pharmacology in the second half of our century was the creation and introduction into practice of broad-spectrum antibiotics: sulfa drugs, vitamins, drugs that affect the activity of the central nervous system, tranquilizers, neuroleptics, psychotomimeticsetc. Many of these drugs were discovered and first used in our country(fluorofur, phenazepam, cyclodol, vitamin preparations and many others. d r.)

Character and the strength of action of drugs depend not only on their composition and structure, but also on their physical - chemical properties, which is also the subject of the study of inorganic chemistry. Differences in these properties, in turn, make it possible to develop appropriate methods of analysis, to judge the authenticity, good quality, compatibility of inorganic substances in prescriptions, and the storage order of drugs.

Let us take a closer look at the use of some inorganic substances in medicine.

Noble gases. Helium. Biological studies have shown that the helium atmosphere does not affect the human genetic apparatus, does not affect cell development and the frequency of mutations. Breathing helium air (air in which nitrogen has been partially or completely replaced by helium) has increased V improves oxygen exchange in the lungs, prevents nitrogen embolism (caisson disease).

Xenon like radiopaquethe substance is widely used in fluoroscopy

brain. Radon in ultramicro doses has a positive effect on the central nervous system, therefore it is widely used in physiotherapy (radon baths). It also finds use in the treatment of cancer patients.

Boric acid H3BO3 and tetraborate sodium (borax) Na 2 V 4 O 7 *10H 2 O is used in medicine as antiseptics.

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Sodium bromide and potassium bromide note yay in medicine as sedatives that normalize the disturbed relationship between the processes of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex.

Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) is used in medical practice due to its ability to create an alkaline reaction in aqueous solutions as a result of hydrolysis. It is used internally for increased acidity of gastric juice, peptic ulcer of the stomach and duodenum, heartburn, gout, diabetes, catarrh of the upper respiratory tract. Used externally as a weak alkali for burns, for rinsing, washing and

inhalations for runny nose, conjunctivitis, stomatitis, laryngitis, etc.

Hydroxide calcium in the form of lime water is used externally and internally as an anti-inflammatory, astringent and disinfectant. When used externally, lime water is usually mixed with some oil, used in the form of emulsions for burns, and also for some skin diseases in the form of liquid ointments.

Iodine in the form of an alcohol solution or a solution of iodine in aqueous solutions of iodides potassium and sodium are used as a disinfectant and hemostatic agent.

Iodide potassium is used to treat eye diseases - cataracts, glaucoma. It is often used for poisoning with mercury salts.

Sodium iodide is used as a medicine, since the human body constantly needs some amount of iodine. The human body contains about 25 mg iodine, of which approximately 15 mg localized in the thyroid gland. Lack of iodine causes pathological enlargement of the thyroid gland. Patients are prescribed small doses orally

sodium iodide - 0.1 mg/day.

Cal carbonate tion is used internally not only as a calcium preparation, but also as a means of adsorbing and neutralizing acids.

Oxygen is used in medicine for gas anesthesia. Inhalation of pure oxygen is sometimes prescribed for poisoning and some serious illnesses.

Mouse b Yak and all its compounds are highly poisonous, but some of them are used in medicine. Potassium arsenite K As O 2 used in the form of a solution as a tonic for anemia and exhaustion of the nervous system.

Silver nitrate (lapis). In medicine, its ability to coagulate proteins is used, turning them into insoluble compounds. Used to cauterize wounds and ulcers; in the form of ointments (1-2% x) and 2-10% aqueous solutions. Orally prescribed for stomach ulcers and

duodenum.

Sodium nitrite is used in medical practice as a vasodilator for angina pectoris, and also as an antidote for cyanide poisoning.

Oxide a h ota (I) is a physiologically active compound. Inhaling it in small doses has an intoxicating effect, hence the name -" laughing gas " .

In large doses it causes loss of pain sensitivity, due to which it is widely used in medicine as an anesthetic mixed with oxygen (gas anesthesia). The valuable quality of this substance is its harmlessness to the body.

Magnesium oxide is used in small doses as a laxative for acid poisoning. Included in tooth powders.

Zinc oxide in medicine it is used to make zinc ointment, used as an antiseptic.

Permanganate potassium is widely used in medicine. Its diluted solutions are used as a disinfectant and hemostatic agent. Disinfecting properties of solutions permanganate potassium due to its high oxidizing properties.

Peroxide hydrogen is used externally in the form of a solution with a mass fraction of 3% as a disinfectant and hemostatic agent. This solution is also used for inflammatory diseases of the mucous membrane of the mouth and throat, for the treatment and treatment of contaminated and purulent wounds, and to stop nosebleeds.

Mercury b and its connections. Metallic mercury is used in medicine to prepare ointments. Yellow mercury(II) oxide is included in eye ointments and ointments for the treatment of skin diseases. Mercury(I) chloride, called calomel, is used as a laxative in some countries. Mercury (II) chloride, or mercuric chloride, in the form of very dilute solutions (1:1000) is used in medicine as a potent disinfectant (now extremely rare).

Sulfur. Among sulfur preparations, purified sulfur and precipitated sulfur are used in medicine. Purified sulfur is obtained from sulfur color, which is carefully freed from possible impurities. Sulfur is prescribed orally as a laxative and expectorant; it is part of ointments and powders used in the treatment of skin diseases.

Silver in the form of colloidal preparations collargol and protargol is used externally as an astringent, antiseptic and anti-inflammatory agent.

Sodium sulfate decahydrate N a 2 SO 4 * H 2 O . E tha s The ol is called Glauber's in honor of the German chemist Glauber. In medicine, Glauber's salt is used as a laxative. Can be used as an antidote for poisoning with barium and lead salts, with which it

gives insoluble precipitates of barium sulfate and lead sulfate.

Calcium sulfate 2Ca SO 4 N 2 O - alabaster. In medicine, it is used to make bandages and splints for fractures and in dental prosthetics.

Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate M g S O 4 * 7 H 2 O. Widely used in medicine as a laxative (bitter salt). Its a laxative O This effect is explained by the delaying effect on the absorption of water from the intestine. Due to the osmotic pressure created by this salt,

water is retained in the intestinal lumen and promotes faster progress

its contents. Magnesium sulfate is used by injection as an antispasmodic, anticonvulsantand an anesthetic, as well as in the treatment of tetanus. For hypertension, it is injected into a vein, and as a choleretic agent - into the duodenum.

Barium sulfate is used in medicine due to its insolubility and due to

ability to strongly absorb x-rays. It is used in the form of a suspension

with fluoroscopy of the gastrointestinal intestinal tractradiopaque substance.

Copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate C u S O 4 * 5H 2 O (copper sulfate). Has an astringent and antiseptic effect. It is used in eye practice for conjunctivitis. Less commonly used as an emetic. A solution of copper (II) sulfate is used as an antidote for white phosphorus poisoning. In this case, the mechanism of the therapeutic effect of copper (II) sulfate is based on its interaction with white phosphorus, as a result of which a film of metallic copper is formed on the phosphorus particles, isolating these particles from contact with biological substrates.

Zinc sulfate heptahydrate ZnSO 4 x 7 H 2 ABOUT. Used to prepare eye drops, as an astringent and antiseptic.

Potassium-aluminum sulfate KAl(SO 4 ) 2 x 12 N 2 O(aluminum o - potassium alum). It has an astringent, anti-inflammatory and hemostatic effect. External remedy.

Iron (II) sulfate heptahydrate FeSO 4 7 H 2 O. In medicine, it is used in the treatment of anemia (anemia) that occurs due to iron deficiency in the body, as well as in case of weakness and exhaustion of the body. D For the same purpose I consume restorediron and iron carbonate.

Sodium thiosulfate Na 2 S 2 0 h taken orally or administered intravenously as an antidote for poisoning by heavy metals, arsenic and cyanide. Also prescribed for various

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skin inflammations.

Activated carbon It is used internally for food poisoning, increased acidity of gastric juice, and fermentation in the intestines.

Ammonium chloride is used in medicine for edema of cardiac origin, to enhance the effect of mercury diuretics. This substance has an expectorant effect.

Calcium chloride is widely used in medicine as a hemostatic agent for bleeding, allergic diseases, and also as an antidote for poisoning with magnesium salts. It is also used as a sedative in the treatment of neuroses, bronchial asthma, and tuberculosis.

Sodium chloride - 0.9% Its aqueous solution is called isotonic. It serves to replenish fluid in case of large losses by the body. Higher concentration solutions" (3, 5 and 10%) are used externally for inflammatory processes.

Iron chloride and (III) in medical practice it is used as a disinfectant and hemostatic agent.

Of the inorganic materials, the most widely used in medicine are various metals and their alloys. From a large number of metals and alloys, titanium, corrosion resistantsteel and alloy containing chromium, cobalt, molybdenum. These materials are used to construct apparatus " artificial heart- light " , creation of artificial heart valves, for endoprosthetics of large braid defects t her person.Metals are often used in combination with polymers and various ceramic products.

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Conclusion.

Currently, there are many scientific centers in the world conducting various chemical and biological research. The leading countries in this area are the USA, European countries: England, France, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, Russia, etc. In our country there are many scientific centers located in Moscow and the Moscow region (Pushchin o Obninsk, Chernogolovka), St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk, Vladivostok... Although, in fairness, it should be noted that in this area (as in all Russian science as a whole) there is some “decline”" , associated both with a lack of funding and the general economic crisis in the Russian Federation, and with the brain-drain problem ("brain drain") to more economically favorable countries. However, many research institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Russian Academy of Medical n auc. Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, The Ministries of Health and Medical Industry continue scientific research, although not at full power. One of the leading centers in the country Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry named after M.A. Shemyakin and Yu.A. Ovchinnikova, Institute of Molecular Biologynamed after V.A.Engelhardt,Institute of Organic Synthesisnamed after N.D. Zelinsky, Institute physicochemical Biology, Belozersky Moscow State University, etc. Saint Petersburgwe can note the Institute of Cytology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, chemical and biological f-you State University, Institute of Experimental Medicine RAMS, Institute of Oncology RAMS im. Petrova, Institute of Highly Pure Biological Products MZiMP, etc.

The main problems solved in recent years by physicochemical biology are the synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids, the establishment of nucleotide sequences genome many organisms (including determination of the complete nucleotide sequence of the human genome), directed transport of substances through biological membranes; development of new drugs, new materials for medical use, for example, for bioprosthetics. Particular attention is paid to the development of biotechnologies, which are often more cost-effective and efficient than traditional “technical” ones, not to mention their environmental friendliness. Active work is underway to cloning plants and animals, as well as the production of individual organs outside the body. Particularly noteworthy is the recent success of Swiss scientists(the first press reports appeared at the end of February 1997), received by cloning a farm animal a sheep that has been raised from its mother's udder cage- sheep; the daughter genetic copy was named Dolly. This indicates that cloning moves from the sphere of purely scientific experiments to the sphere of practice. It is necessary to mention the treatment of diseases with a new method gene therapy change in heredity. The therapeutic effect is achieved by transferring" corrected" gene or using retrovirus, or implementation liposomes, containing genetic constructs. Gene therapy method ah only o originate, but it was with their help that a little girl who was sick was already cured cystic fibrosis;The use of gene therapy is especially promising in the treatment of diseases that are inherited or caused by viruses.

Probably, with the use of these methods, AIDS and cancer will be defeated , flu and many others, less common diseases. In addition, the mechanisms of transformation of chemical substances in organisms and on

Based on the knowledge gained, a continuous search for medicinal substances is carried out. A large number of different medicinal substances are currently produced either biotechnologically(interferon, insulin,interleukin, refnolin,somatogen,antibiotics, medicinal vaccines, etc.), using microorganisms (many of which are products of genetic engineering), or through the almost traditional chemical syntheticTeza, or with the help of physics- chemical methods of isolation from naturalraw materials(parts of plants and

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animals).

Another biological task of chemistry is the search for new materials that can replace living tissue needed for prosthetics . Chemistry has given doctors hundreds of different options for new materials.

In addition to many medications, in everyday life people encounter the achievements of physical and chemical biology in various areas of their professional activities and in everyday life. New food products appear or technologies for preserving already known products are improved.

New cosmetic products are being produced , allowing a person to be healthy and beautiful, protecting him from the adverse effects of the environment. Various bioadditives are used in technology for many products. organic synthesis.In agriculture, substances are used that can increase yields (growth stimulants, herbicides, etc.) or repel pests (pheromones, insect hormones), cure diseases of plants and animals and many others...

All of the above successes were achieved using the knowledge and methods of modern chemistry. In modern biology and medicine nChemistry plays one of the leading roles, and the importance of chemical science will only increase. The “junction of sciences” of chemistry and biology turned out to be extremely fruitful.

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Bibliography.

1. Azimov A. A brief history of chemistry. Moscow: Mir, 1983.

2. Gabrielyan O.S. Chemistry 10th grade. Moscow: Bustard, 2005.

3. Glinka N.L. General chemistry. St. Petersburg: Chemistry, 1999.

4. Kramarenko V.F. Toxicological chemistry. Kyiv: Vysha school, 1989.

5. Makarov K.A. Chemistry and medicine. Moscow: Education, 1998.

6. Oganesyan E.T., Knizhnik A.Z. Inorganic chemistry. Moscow: Medicine, 1989.

7. Soviet encyclopedic dictionary. Moscow, 1989.

The developments of chemists have been used for medical needs since ancient times. Thus, Paracelsus’s studies of mercury and arsenic compounds formed the basis of iatrochemistry - the science of using certain chemical compounds to treat diseases. The discovery of substances capable of destroying various microbes in the environment formed the basis

disinfection method. Thus, to disinfect tissues during operations, D. Lister used phenol solutions; P. Koch - solutions of chlorine mercury, and in 1909 Stretton discovered the disinfecting properties of solutions of iodine in alcohol.

Another important discovery by chemists for medicine was the synthesis of various serums that make it possible to develop immunity to a specific disease.

DEFINITION

Chemical organic synthesis– the basis of the pharmaceutical industry (production of drugs). The sources for the synthesis of drugs are inorganic (rocks, ores, gases, sea and lake water) and organic raw materials (wood, herbs, oil, natural gas).

There are two classifications of drugs - pharmaceutical, which is used in medical practice, and chemical, used in the field of drug synthesis.

A special place in the pharmaceutical industry is occupied by the production of painkillers, antibacterial and chemotherapeutic agents, vitamins and hormones.

Painkillers

These substances are characterized by several types of action - analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic. Based on their chemical structure, these substances can be divided into derivatives of salicylic acid (aspirin, sodium salicylate, etc.) and pyrazolone (amidopyrine, antipyrine, analgin, butadione).

Sleeping pills

Most hypnotics are derivatives of barbituric acid, although the acid itself does not have a hypnotic effect. According to the mechanism of their influence on the central nervous system, they are classified as narcotic substances.

Sleeping pills include long-acting drugs (barbital, phenobarbital), intermediate-acting drugs (nitrazepam, barbamyl) and short-acting drugs (noxiron, hexa-barbital).

Antibacterial and chemotherapeutic agents

This group of drugs includes antiseptics and disinfectants. These primarily include sulfonamide drugs (sulfadimezin, sulfazin, norsulfazole, etazol, etc.) and antibiotics. The mechanism of action of sulfonamides is based on a structural analogy of their structure and the structure of folic acid, which is synthesized by many bacteria.

Vitamins

DEFINITION

Vitamins- a group of low molecular weight organic compounds characterized by a simple chemical structure and diversity of chemical nature. These substances were combined into a special group due to their absolute necessity for a heterotrophic organism as an integral part of food. Since the discovery of the chemical nature of vitamins occurred after the establishment of their biological role, vitamins were conventionally designated by letters of the Latin alphabet (A, B, C, D, etc.).

The study of vitamins opened up the possibility of understanding the mechanism of action of drugs, and also played a significant role in the development of chemotherapy.

All vitamins are classified depending on their ability to dissolve in water or fat. Thus, water-soluble (C, PP, groups B, H) and fat-soluble (groups A, D, E and K) vitamins are isolated. Vitamins are found in foods (Fig. 1) or can be obtained through chemical synthesis.

Rice. 1 Vitamins in food.

Use of polymers in medicine

The number of polymer materials used in medicine is constantly expanding. Low-density polyethylene, polyurethane foam, polypropylene, epoxy, polyester and organosilicon polymers, as well as special adhesives that can glue tissue during surgery, replacing suture material, are widely used. The production of rubber from rubber has also found application in medicine, ranging from a rubber heating pad to a special rubber inflatable bed for patients with extensive burns.

An important aspect of the use of polymers in medicine is their use for the manufacture of blood substitutes, as well as in surgery for replacing individual bones in case of fractures of the skeleton, ribs, skull, for the manufacture of dentures, blood vessels, artificial kidneys, heart valves, etc.

Hoses made of polyvinyl chloride are used for blood transfusions, and plastics are used to make dressings, tendons and eye prostheses.

Manufacturing of contact lenses

The year 1887 can be considered the year of the introduction of the contact lens, when glassblower F. Müller made concave glass discs to order from one of his clients. At the end of the 30s, the first lenses made of plastic - polymethyl methacrylate (hard lenses) appeared, which, compared to glass, were lighter, more durable and relatively simple to manufacture.

In the 50-60s, soft lenses appeared after Otto Wichterle and his laboratory staff obtained a hydrogel from a copolymer of glycol methacrylate and diglycol dimethacrylate. The resulting material contained about 40% water, was elastic, chemically inert, biologically and mechanically stable.

Polymethyl methacrylate (plexiglass or plexiglass) is the main material for the manufacture of contact lenses, however, developments that are constantly being carried out in this area have made it possible to synthesize new materials, for example, cellulose acetobutyrate, poly-4-methylpentene-1, copolymers of methyl methacrylate with acrylic acid are better at transmitting oxygen .

INTRODUCTION

Chemists of the second half of the 20th century continued the work of their ancestors and were very actively involved in the study of living nature. This thesis can be supported at least by the fact that out of 39 Nobel Prizes in chemistry awarded over the past 20 years (1977-1996), 21 prizes (more than half! and there are a lot of branches of chemistry) were received for solutions to chemical and biological problems. This is not surprising, because a living cell is a real kingdom of large and small molecules that continuously interact, form and disintegrate... About 100,000 processes take place in the human body, each of them representing a combination of various chemical transformations. Approximately 2,000 reactions can occur in one cell of the body. All these processes are carried out using a relatively small number of organic and inorganic compounds. Modern chemistry is characterized by a transition to the study of complex organoelement compounds consisting of inorganic and organic residues.

Chapter 1. MODERN CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE

Inorganic parts are represented by water and ions of various metals, halogens and phosphorus (mainly), organic parts are represented by proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids and a fairly large group of low-molecular bioregulators, such as hormones, vitamins, antibiotics, prostaglandins, alkaloids, growth regulators and etc.

For modern doctors and pharmacists, the study of inorganic chemistry is also of great importance, since many drugs are inorganic in nature. Therefore, physicians must clearly know their properties: solubility, mechanical strength, reactivity, impact on humans and the environment.

Modern medicine widely studies the relationship between the content of chemical elements in the body and the occurrence and development of various diseases. It turned out that the body reacts especially sensitively to changes in the concentration of microelements in it, that is, elements present in the body in quantities less than 1 g per 70 kg of human body weight. These elements include copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, cobalt, iron, and nickel.

Of the non-metalloids in living systems, one can almost always find atoms of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus and sulfur in organic compounds and atoms of halogens and boron both in the form of ions and in organic particles. Deviations in the content of most of these elements in living organisms often lead to quite severe metabolic disorders.

Most diseases are caused by deviations in the concentrations of some substance from the norm. This is due to the fact that a huge number of chemical transformations inside a living cell occur in several stages, and many substances are not important to the cell in themselves, they are only intermediaries in a chain of complex reactions; but, if some link is broken, then the entire chain as a result often ceases to fulfill its transfer function; the normal work of the cell in the synthesis of necessary substances stops.

It has been proven that changes in the concentration of zinc are associated with the course of cancer, cobalt and manganese - diseases of the heart muscle, nickel - blood clotting processes. Determining the concentration of these elements in the blood sometimes allows us to detect the early stages of various diseases. Thus, changes in the concentration of zinc in the blood serum are associated with the course of diseases of the liver and spleen, and the concentrations of cobalt and chromium are associated with some cardiovascular diseases.

Organic molecules play a very important role in maintaining the normal functioning of the body. They can be divided according to the principles inherent in their design into three groups:

biological macromolecules (proteins, nucleic acids and their complexes), oligomers (nucleotides, lipids, peptides, etc.) and monomers (hormones, antibiotics, vitamins and many other substances).

For chemistry, it is especially important to establish a connection between the structure of a substance and its properties, in particular its biological action. For this purpose, many modern methods are used that are part of the arsenal of physics, organic chemistry, mathematics and biology.

In modern science, on the border of chemistry and biology, many new sciences have arisen, which differ in the methods used, goals and objects of study. All these sciences are usually united under the term “physico-chemical biology”. This direction includes:

a) chemistry of natural compounds (bioorganic and bioinorganic chemistry bioorganic chemistry and inorganic biochemistry, respectively);

b) biochemistry;

c) biophysics;

d) molecular biology;

e) molecular genetics;

f) pharmacology and molecular pharmacology and many related disciplines. In most modern biological research, chemical and physicochemical methods are actively used. Progress in such branches of biology as cytology, immunology and histology was directly related to the development of chemical methods for the isolation and analysis of substances. Even such a classical “purely biological” science as physiology is increasingly using the achievements of chemistry and biochemistry. In the USA, the National Institutes of Health USA currently funds areas of medical science related to purely physiological research much less than biochemical research, considering physiology an “unpromising and outdated” science. Sciences that seem exotic at first glance are emerging, such as molecular physiology, molecular epidemiology, etc. New types of biomedical tests have appeared, in particular, enzyme immunoassay, which can be used to determine the presence of diseases such as AIDS and hepatitis; the use of new chemistry methods and increased sensitivity of old methods now makes it possible to determine many important substances without violating the integrity of the patient’s skin, one drop of saliva, sweat or other biological fluid.

So, what do all the above sciences, which are different branches of physical and chemical biology, do?

The basis of the chemistry of natural compounds was traditional organic chemistry, which was initially considered as the chemistry of substances found in living nature. Modern organic chemistry deals with all compounds that have carbon chains (or substituted with carbon heteroanalogues), and bioorganic chemistry, which studies natural compounds, has become a separate branch of science. The chemistry of natural compounds arose in the middle of the 19th century, when some fats, sugars and amino acids were synthesized (this is associated with the works of M. Berthelot, F. Wehler, A. Butlerov, F. Kekule, etc.).

The first protein-like polypeptides were created at the beginning of this century, at which time E. Fischer, together with other researchers, contributed to the study of sugars. The development of research on the chemistry of natural substances continued at an increasing pace until the middle of the 20th century. Following alkaloids, terpenes and vitamins, this science began to study steroids, growth substances, antibiotics, prostaglandins and other low-molecular bioregulators. Along with them, the chemistry of natural compounds studies biopolymers and biooligomers (nucleic acids, proteins, nucleoproteins, glycoproteins, lipoproteins, glycolipids, etc.). The main arsenal of research methods consists of methods of organic chemistry, but a variety of physical, physicochemical, mathematical and biological methods are also actively used to solve structural and functional problems. The main problems solved by the chemistry of natural compounds are:

a) isolation of the studied compounds in an individual state using crystallization, distillation, various types of chromatography, electrophoresis, ultrafiltration, ultracentrifugation, countercurrent distribution, etc.;

b) establishment of the structure, including spatial structure, based on approaches of organic and physical organic chemistry using mass spectroscopy, various types of optical spectroscopy (IR, UV, laser, etc.), X-ray diffraction analysis of nuclear magnetic resonance, electron paramagnetic resonance, optical dispersion rotation and circular dichroism, fast kinetics methods, etc.;

c) chemical synthesis and chemical modification of the studied compounds, including complete synthesis, synthesis of analogues and derivatives, in order to confirm the structure, clarify the relationship between structure and biological function, and obtain drugs valuable for practical use;

d) biological testing of the obtained compounds in vitro and in vivo.

The largest achievements in the chemistry of natural compounds were the decoding of the structure and synthesis of biologically important alkaloids, steroids and vitamins, the complete chemical synthesis of some peptides, prostaglandins, penicillins, vitamins, chlorophyll and other compounds; the structures of many proteins, the nucleotide sequences of many genes, etc. have been established. and so on.

The emergence of the science of biochemistry is usually associated with the discovery of the phenomenon of enzymatic catalysis and the biological enzyme catalysts themselves, the first of which were identified and isolated in a crystalline state in the 20s of the twentieth century. Biochemistry studies chemical processes occurring directly in living organisms and uses chemical methods in the study of biological processes. The major events in biochemistry were the establishment of the central role of ATP in energy metabolism, the elucidation of the chemical mechanisms of photosynthesis, respiration and muscle contraction, the discovery of transamination, the establishment of the mechanism of transport of substances through biological membranes, etc.

Molecular biology arose in the early 50s, when J. Watson and F. Crick deciphered the structure of DNA, which made it possible to begin studying the ways of storing and implementing hereditary information.

The greatest achievements of molecular biology are the discovery of the genetic code, the mechanism of protein biosynthesis in ribosomes, and the basis for the functioning of the oxygen carrier hemoglobin.

The next step on this path was the emergence of molecular genetics, which studies the mechanisms of operation of units of hereditary information of genes at the molecular level. One of the most pressing problems of molecular genetics is the establishment of pathways for regulating gene expression: transferring a gene from an active state to an inactive state and vice versa; regulation of transcription and translation processes. A practical application of molecular genetics was the development of methods of genetic engineering and gene therapy, which make it possible to modify the hereditary information stored in a living cell in such a way that the necessary substances will be synthesized inside the cell itself, which makes it possible to obtain many valuable compounds biotechnologically, as well as normalize the balance of substances, disrupted during illness. The essence of genetic engineering is the cutting of a DNA molecule into separate fragments, which is achieved with the help of enzymes and chemical reagents, followed by connection; This operation is performed with the aim of inserting into an evolutionarily adjusted chain of nucleotides a new fragment of a gene responsible for the synthesis of the substance we need, together with the so-called regulators of DNA sections that ensure the activity of “their” gene. Already now, with the help of genetic engineering, many drugs are produced, mainly of a protein nature: insulin, interferon, somatotropin, etc.

Chapter 2. ELECTIVE COURSE “CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE”

chemistry medicine course training

In our information age - the age of modernization of biological and chemical education, oddly enough, schoolchildren have rather meager knowledge about their body, ways to maintain health and get out of situations when the body requires “repair”. To identify the reasons for the required “repair,” you need to know what the human body is like from the point of view of chemistry and biology, what underlies the preservation and maintenance of health, how to help your body cope with colds, and what is better to use: medicinal or herbal preparations.

While studying this course, concepts about health, components and indicators of health, factors that determine health (heredity, food, quality of environment, lifestyle), medications and their effect on the body, and their correct use are formed. It is always necessary to remember that “the dose can kill and the dose can cure.”

The course “Chemistry and Medicine” allows you to immerse yourself in a system of questions in biology and chemistry: the chemical properties of metals and non-metals, chemical reactions, cell chemistry, food, heredity of the body.

Life is based on chemical processes, and diseases are the result of their disruption in the body, which is a large retort.

T. Paracelsus

Everything is poison, nothing is poisonous, and everything is medicine. Only the dose makes a medicine a poison or a medicine.

T. Paracelsus

Life is the eternal movement of fluids between cells and within cells. Stopping this movement results in death. Partial slowing down of this movement in some organ causes partial disorder. A general slowdown in the movement of extracellular fluids causes disease.

Doctor A.S. Zalmanov, “Secret Wisdom”

I don’t walk in the steppe - I walk around the pharmacy, sorting through its herbal file cabinet. Boundless steppe, Endless steppe, You are a strange recipe written by nature.

S. Kirsanov

There is nothing else in nature, neither here nor there in the depths of space: Everything - from small grains of sand to planets - consists of single elements.

S. Shchipachev

What medicine cannot cure, iron can cure; what iron cannot cure, fire can cure.

Hippocrates

Course objectives.

1. Expand students’ knowledge about the body as a chemical factory.

2. Continue to develop students’ understanding of the importance of maintaining health at the biological and chemical level.

3. To develop elementary medicine skills in students.

Course objectives.

1. Update and expand students’ knowledge on health issues.

2. Teach schoolchildren to analyze lifestyle from the point of view of its impact on health.

3. Develop students’ skills in assessing the functional state of their body.

4. Provide vocational guidance to high school students.

Course structure and content (34 hours)

an example is an ointment or emulsion of benzyl benzoate - an ester of benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol C 6 H 5 – C (O) – O – CH 2 – C 6 H 5.

Unfortunately, these drugs cause allergies in many patients, so old methods of treatment based on the use of elemental sulfur in the form of ointments on Vaseline are still relevant. But M.P. Demyanovich’s method is much more effective, although labor-intensive. When treating using this method, a 60% aqueous solution of sodium thiosulfate is rubbed into the skin for 10–15 minutes. After the skin has dried and crystals have appeared on it, rub a 6% aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid for 10–15 minutes. You are allowed to wash after three days. By this time the patient is recovering.

How can you explain the essence of Demjanovich's method from a chemist's point of view?

Note. When completing this task, it is advisable to discuss the problems of preventing scabies. This is an extremely contagious disease that is transmitted not only through direct contact with the patient, but also through his personal belongings - clothes, towels, and also through paper money. The best way to protect yourself from scabies is to strictly follow the rules of personal hygiene.

Task 3. In the book by M.M. Gurvich’s “Home Dietetics” for those suffering from urolithiasis provides the following recommendation: “The diet includes those varieties of greens and vegetables that are considered low in calcium and alkaline valencies: peas, Brussels sprouts, pumpkin.” Comment on this formulation from the position of a chemist, and if you can, also an agronomist.

Task 4. For the treatment of anemia (low hemoglobin content in the blood), iron preparations have long been used, including iron(II) sulfate, and sometimes reduced iron powder. There is also an old folk recipe for anemia - the “iron apple”: several nails are stuck into an apple (preferably the Antonovka variety) and left for a day. Then the nails are removed, and the apple is eaten by the patient.

How can you explain the effectiveness of the "iron apple" from a chemist's point of view?

Task 5. Herbal treatment is becoming increasingly popular, but most people do not strictly follow the rules for preparing decoctions and infusions, especially the dosage of raw materials, although this is very important when treating with this method. Most herbs are recommended to be brewed in the following proportion: 20 g (one full tablespoon) of dry crushed herbs per glass (200 ml) of boiling water, i.e. the ratio of mass parts is 1:10. In the summer, you can prepare preparations not from dried, but from freshly picked herbs. How to correctly calculate the ratio of herb and water in order to obtain an infusion of the same concentration?

Note. The moisture content of properly dried grass is 8–15%; in freshly picked plants, depending on their type, the water content ranges from 70 to 95%.

Task 6. To reduce the acidity of gastric juice and reduce its enzymatic activity in case of gastric ulcer and duodenal ulcer, gastritis with high acidity, doctors have such drugs as becarbonate in their arsenal (one tablet contains dry belladonna extract 0.01 g and sodium bicarbonate 0. 3 g), magnesium oxide MgO, white magnesia Mg(OH) 2 4MgCO 3 H 2 O, vicalin (which includes BiNO 3 (OH) 2, Mg(OH) 2 4MgCO 3 H 2 O, NaHCO 3), hydroxide aluminum (in the form of an amorphous white powder), almagel (a mixture of specially prepared Al (OH) 3 gel with MgO and sorbitol).

Many patients still, in the absence of these medications, use regular baking soda to get rid of heartburn (which doctors do not recommend doing!). Try to compare the mechanism of action of all these drugs and explain what advantages each of them has. Why do doctors now prefer drugs based on Al(OH) 3 and do not recommend taking soda to neutralize excess acidity of gastric juice?

Task 7. Professional athletes usually carry emergency medications with them for minor injuries (for example, a sprained ankle). Ethyl chloride C 2 H 5 Cl in ampoules or a set of two sealed bags is often used as such preparations: one contains dry NH 4 NO 3, the other contains water. Both drugs act in the same way: they cause rapid cooling of the damaged joint - this relieves pain and swelling. However, from a chemist's point of view, their actions are fundamentally different. Try to explain what the difference is.

Hint: the boiling point of ethyl chloride is 12–16 °C.

Task 8. Many people know the method of treating a runny nose or radiculitis using table salt. It is heated in a frying pan or in the oven, poured into a bag made of thick fabric, and the bag is applied to the sore spot for several hours.

What properties of table salt are used in this recipe? By the way, instead of salt, you can use clean sand, which, as is known, consists mainly of SiO 2.

Task 9. An advertisement for the medicinal and cosmetic cream “Ksenia” talks about the property of this cream to restore the salt balance in muscle and bone tissues. Among others, the text contains the following phrase: “Meanwhile, “Ksenia” washes your bones, clarifying her relationship with calcium, that is, lime, and makes you a berry in the full sense of the word. If you use “Xenia”, you are not at risk of deposition of calcium salts in the aorta, heart and kidneys. You will avoid osteochondrosis, soft tissue calcification, osteoporosis...” What in this text can cause an objection from a chemist?

Comment on this phrase from the point of view of a chemist.

Task 10. Caries has become a real scourge of the Russian population. According to statistics, more than 96% of the population suffers from it. One of the preventive measures is careful dental care. It is advisable to brush them after each meal. But there is one exception - if you have eaten sour berries or fruits, it is better not to brush your teeth for an hour, especially with a hard brush. Why?

Hint: the chemical composition of tooth enamel is close to the composition of the mineral hydroxylapatite Ca 5 OH (PO 4) 3.

Task 11. Calcium plays an important role in the life of the body. Calcium ions are necessary for the transmission of nerve impulses, contraction of skeletal muscles and heart muscles, formation of bone tissue, and blood clotting. Calcium preparations are widely used, in particular, in the treatment of fractures and increased release of calcium from the body, which occurs in long-term patients. Doctors have several calcium preparations in their arsenal. The most commonly used are calcium gluconate, lactate and glycerophosphate in tablet form. These drugs are similar in their effect on the body, so doctors often recommend purchasing any of them, leaving the right of choice to the patient.

Which drug is more rational to choose from the above, if their price is approximately the same?

Answers and solutions

1. Yes, this drug can be used without risk to health. The white precipitate is calcium carbonate CaCO 3, which was formed as a result of the interaction of CaCl 2 with air CO 2. A small amount of CaCO 3 is absolutely harmless.

It should be remembered that the case we described is still an exception to the general rule - most medications cannot be used after the expiration date indicated on the packaging, since most of them are organic compounds of complex composition and their decomposition products can be toxic .

2. When a solution of sodium thiosulfate is acidified, thiosulfuric acid is formed:

Na 2 S 2 O 3 + 2HCl = H 2 S 2 O 3 + 2NaCl.

Thiosulfuric acid quickly decomposes, releasing sulfur and sulfur dioxide:

H 2 S 2 O 3 = S + H 2 O + SO 2.

At the moment of release, sulfur has a particularly active effect on the scabies mite; SO 2 has a similar effect, which is why Demyanovich’s method gives such good results.

3. For a chemist, the phrase “alkaline valencies” causes bewilderment. Valency is the ability of an atom to attach or replace a certain number of other atoms or atomic groups to form a chemical bond. But what the author meant by “alkaline valences” can only be guessed at. If you use a reference book that lists the chemical composition of plant products, you will find that vegetables, along with calcium, also contain potassium, sodium, rubidium, lithium, i.e. alkali metals. It can be assumed that the author calls them “alkaline valences”.

The cause of urolithiasis is a violation of salt metabolism in the body, therefore the mineral composition of food is very important for the patient, who needs to monitor the content of all minerals in his diet, including alkali metals.

More correctly, from the point of view of a chemist, this advice should be formulated as follows: “Include in the diet those greens and vegetables that are poor in calcium and alkali metals.” There is a wording in the text that is also incorrect from a biologist’s point of view: the term “variety” should be replaced by the term “species” or “culture”.

4. Iron is used to treat anemia, since it is part of hemoglobin. Apples are recommended for such patients because they contain more iron than other fruits (on average 2200 mg per 100 g of product). The iron in the alloy from which nails are made dissolves, albeit slowly, in the organic acids contained in the apple. The apple is enriched with iron even more. It is believed that of all apple varieties, Antonovka contains the most iron; it also contains a lot of acids, which facilitates the dissolution of iron.

5. Let us take for calculation the arithmetic average values ​​of moisture content in plants:

(70 + 95)/2 = 82.5% – fresh,

(8 + 15)/2 = 11.5% – dry.

To prepare one glass of infusion, you need to take 20 g of dried raw materials and 200 g of water. If the mass fraction of water in dried raw materials is 11.5%, then the content of dry plant material is (100–11.5) = 88.5%. Then

Information density, which is very important for the development of modern technical means of recording, accumulating and storing information. 7. The most important discoveries in chemistry of the XXI century 2001 William Knowles, Ryoji Noyori and Barry Sharpless “For research used in the pharmaceutical industry - the creation of chiral catalysts for redox reactions.” 2002 John Fenn and Koichi Tanaka "For...

Only in position 4. The formation of other products (X, XI, XII, XIV and XV) is clear from the diagram. Estrogenic hormones are inherent in animal organisms, but they are also found in plants, for example estrone, in coconut extract and in female willow flowers. At first, when the chemistry of steroid estrogens was not sufficiently developed, various drugs were used: folliculin - an aqueous solution obtained from purified ...

Mastering the secrets of modern chemistry will allow you to master many relevant and in-demand professions. Knowledge of chemistry makes it possible to work in the field of medicine, pharmacology, biochemistry and biophysics, molecular biology, geology... Chemistry is the key to a successful future: the knowledge gained from a chemistry tutor in Kemerovo will help you master a worthy profession and find your place in life.

Most modern research is carried out “at the intersection of sciences”, and in order to get answers to the questions posed, scientists of different specialties are involved: biologists, physicists, and, of course, chemists. The role of chemistry should be especially emphasized: thanks to the development of this science, it was possible to discover many secrets of the living world. Researchers have studied the role of hormones and enzymes, are creating more and more new synthetic drugs, have found out many mechanisms of cell functioning... The list is endless. One thing is obvious: without chemistry, the development of modern science of living nature and medicine is unthinkable.

Chemistry and medicine: an unbreakable union

M.V. Lomonosov said: “A physician cannot be perfect without a thorough knowledge of chemistry.” These words are still relevant today. The creation of synthetic drugs is considered one of the most important scientific achievements of the twentieth century. Many diseases that were previously considered incurable have become curable. In the 6th century, the plague claimed millions of lives; at the beginning of the 20th century, thousands of people died from the flu. Thanks to modern medicines, created through the efforts of chemists and pharmacists, these victims could be avoided.

Synthetic organic chemistry began to develop in the mid-19th century. Numerous artificial dyes, aromatic compounds and drugs appeared. The progenitor of chemotherapy, that is, the treatment of diseases with the help of artificially created drugs, is considered to be the German doctor Paul Ehrlich, who in 1891 proposed treating malaria using the dye methylene blue. This drug turned out to be less effective than quinine: Ehrlich became famous thanks to the creation of salvarsan, an artificially synthesized drug for the treatment of syphilis. Currently, thousands of synthetic drugs have been developed, with the help of which it is possible to restore health to patients who were considered hopeless just a few decades ago.

However, knowledge of inorganic chemistry is no less important, because many modern medicines are inorganic in nature.

In addition, the human body reacts quite sensitively to a lack or excess of chemical elements:

• oncological diseases are associated with changes in zinc content in the body;
• lack of manganese leads to heart disease;
• nickel affects the blood clotting process;
• With a lack of calcium, diseases of the musculoskeletal system occur.

In the twentieth century, human life expectancy doubled. This is largely due to the use of innovative drugs created with the participation of chemists: mortality from tuberculosis has decreased by a hundred times, from influenza by 10 times, and from atherosclerosis by 6 times.

Chemistry is a science that will not lose its relevance for a long time. Thanks to chemistry, humanity has achieved many successes. In the future, the role of chemical science will only increase: work at the intersection of disciplines has proven to be extremely fruitful.